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Black Hispanic and Latino Americans

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"Afro-Latino" redirects here. For Latin American people of African ancestry, see Afro–Latin Americans.
Black Hispanic and Latino Americans
Estadounidenses hispanos y latinos negros
Total population
1,163,862[1][2]
0.4% of the total U.S. population (2020)[2]
2.0% of all Black People (2020)[2]
1.9% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans (2020)[2]
Regions with significant populations
Northeastern United States
Languages
English • Spanish • Spanish creole • Spanglish • Nuyorican English • Portuguese • Porglish
Religion
Roman Catholicism, but also Protestantism, Judaism and African diasporic religions
Related ethnic groups
African Americans • Afro-Caribbeans • Afro–Latin Americans and other Latin Americans • Black people and African ethnic groups • Hispanic and Latino Americans and other ethnic groups of the United States •
Part of a series on
Hispanic and
Latino Americans
National origin groups
History
Americans by ancestry
Political movements
Organizations
Culture
Languages
Ethnic groups
Lists

Black Hispanic and Latino Americans, also called Afro-Hispanics,[3] Afro-Latinos,[4] Black Hispanics, or Black Latinos,[3] are classified by the United States Census Bureau, Office of Management and Budget, and other U.S. government agencies[5] as Black people living in the United States with ancestry in Latin America or Spain and/or who speak Spanish and/or Portuguese as either their first language or second language.

Hispanidad, which is independent of race, is the only ethnic category, as opposed to racial category, which is officially collated by the U.S. Census Bureau. The distinction made by government agencies for those within the population of any official race category, including "Black", is between those who report Hispanic backgrounds and all others who do not. Non-Hispanic Blacks consists of an ethnically diverse collection of all others who are classified as Black or African American that do not report Hispanic ethnic backgrounds.[6]

History

[edit]

The Hispanic model of identity and representation has been historically characterized by its multi-faceted nature, which transcends strict racial categorizations. Numerous figures exemplify this complexity, including San Martín de Porres, Beatriz de Palacios, Spanish conquistador Juan Garrido that established the first commercial wheat farm in the Americas,[7] Estevanico, Francisco Menendez, Juan de Villanueva, Juan Valiente, Juan Beltrán, Pedro Fulupo, Juan Bardales, Antonio Pérez, Gómez de León, Leonor Galiano, Teresa Juliana de Santo Domingo and Juan García. Additionally, Juan Latino stands out as a significant figure in this discourse; he is recognized as the first black African to attend a European university, ultimately achieving the status of professor. This highlights the notion that the Hispanic identity is not monolithic and is instead enriched by diverse contributions across racial and ethnic lines. Such examples serve to challenge simplistic perceptions of race within the historical narrative of Hispanic culture.

Demographics

[edit]

New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, District of Columbia, New Jersey, Connecticut and Rhode Island have some of the highest percentages of Hispanics identifying as Black, where up to 15% of Hispanics identify as black, compared to 1.9% of Hispanics nationwide.[8] Overall, the Northeast region has the largest concentration of Black Hispanics; this is partly because of the large Puerto Rican, Dominican, and other mostly or partly African descended Hispanic populations in the region.[8][9]

Black Hispanics numbered 1,163,862 and accounted for 1.9% of the entire U.S. Hispanic population in 2020, down from 1,243,471.[1][2] Most Black Hispanics in the United States come from within the Dominican and Puerto Rican populations.[10][11][12] Aside from the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, large numbers of Black Hispanics can also be found in populations originating from northern South America, and the Caribbean coast of Central America as well, including the Panamanian and Colombian (usually from western Colombia's Chocó Department) communities, as well as the Garifuna people especially from Honduras, and to a lesser extent, the Cuban community.[13][14]

Because views of race in Latin America and the United States are slightly different, there is a fluidity in identifying with terms such as "black" or "Afro Latino" among Latinos in the United States. Recent immigrants from Latin America are more likely to embrace mixed identities (mestizaje) while thinking less of their African side, and some immigrant Latinos who are full black with little to no admixture do not identify as black. In contrast, Latinos who have lived in the United States for several generations are more likely to adopt urban afrocentric mentalities from African Americans and abandon that of their home countries, embracing the One-drop rule. This is especially true for large portions of the Puerto Rican and now Dominican communities on the East Coast. Some white and mixed Latinos who are Americanized, in effect to embracing African American Hip Hop culture and the One drop rule, self-identify as "Afro Latino" (black).[15]

The main aspects which distinguish Black Hispanics born in the United States of America from African Americans is having Spanish as their mother tongue or most recent ancestors' native language, their culture passed down by their parents, and their Spanish surnames. Of all Hispanic groups, Puerto Ricans have the closest relationship with the African American community. As a result of this, there is also increasing intermarriages and offspring between non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics of any race, mainly between Puerto Ricans and African Americans, which increases both the Hispanic ethnic and black racial demographics.[16][17][18]

In May 2022, Pew Research Center reported that there were an estimated six million Afro-Latino people in the United States, comprising 2% of the adult U.S. population, and 12% of adult Latinos. They also stated that one-in-seven Afro-Latinos did not "identify as Hispanic" and that 30% of Afro-Latino adults were 18 to 29. The report also stated that Afro-Latinos are more likely to be from Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic than from Mexico, noting that 40% of people had their families talk about challenges they'd face for their ethnic identity when they grew up, and that the "racial groups Afro-Latinos identify with can be varied and diverse." In the latter case, the report stated that about 30% of Afro-Latinos identified as White, 25% as Black, 23% as "some other race," 16% as "multiple races" and 1% as Asians.[19]With 25% of Afro-Latinos classifying themselves as racially Black, the total number of Black Hispanics/Latinos in the USA would amount to 1.5-1.8 million Black Latinos in the USA or 3% of the total Black alone Black in combination with another race population (47M-50M). The US Census does not count Portuguese-speakers ( Brazilians) as an Hispanic ethnic group.

Health

[edit]

A review of twenty-one studies found Black Hispanics to have poorer health compared to White Hispanics. The causes are still unknown, but researchers suggested that racial discrimination and segregation may contribute to racial health differences among the Hispanic population in the United States.[20] Environmental racism continues to be a major cause of racialized health disparities in the United States. For example over 5 million people of color live within 1.8 miles of hazardous waste facilities [12]. Furthermore Air pollution in low income communities of color continues to be an issue in places such as the Bronx where Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) levels have caused high rates of childhood asthma [14] Another big environmental issue is access to clean water. For example in Flint, Michigan lead contaminated water has led to major health issues that disproportionately affect African American, and Latino American communities [18][21]. Some of these issues include elevated levels of lead found in blood, rashes, hair loss,[22] and birth defects[18]. This combined with  socio-economic, language, and documentation barriers that restrict the access of adequate health care makes these populations more vulnerable to health issues compared to white Americans [23].

A major health issue within communities of color in the U.S is the lack of access to fresh, and unprocessed foods[24]. The consumption of highly processed foods in Latino and/or Black communities is linked to higher rates of health issues such as diabetes,[25]heart disease, [26]and even cancer[27].

Racial and ethnic minorities in the United States are impacted by larger patterns of inequality, which are intricately linked to these differences in health coverage and access. Even though the Affordable Care Act (ACA) improved health coverage, there are still large disparities, especially among Black, Hispanic, Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (NHPI), and American Indian/Alaska Native (AIAN) people who are not old. These groups are more likely than their White counterparts to be uninsured, according to data from recent years. For instance, the uninsured rate for white Americans is 7% as of 2022, while it is still a startlingly high 18% and 19% for nonelderly Hispanic and Asian Americans, respectively.

Even though coverage slightly improved between 2019 and 2022, discrepancies in health insurance still exist. Communities of color are disproportionately affected by a number of environmental and socioeconomic constraints, which exacerbate these disparities in addition to the lack of coverage. Black and Hispanic Americans' health issues are made worse by elements like subpar living conditions in polluted communities, low financial means, and difficulty accessing high-quality medical services. Additionally, economic instability, immigrant status, and language issues make it more difficult for them to access the healthcare system, which causes them to put off seeking care and reduces the possibility that they will receive the treatments they need. The health disparities that still impact these communities' well-being are a result of these systemic problems.

These difficulties underscore the pressing need for focused policy changes to address the wider social determinants of health that disproportionately impact minority groups in the United States, in addition to health insurance coverage.[28]

Although Black Hispanics are often overlooked or dichotomized as either "black" or "Hispanic" in the United States of America, Black Hispanic writers often reflect upon their racialized experience in their works. The most commonly used term in literature to speak of this ambiguity and multilayered hybridity at the heart of Latino/Latina identity and culture is miscegenation.[29]: 48  This "mestizaje" depicts the multi-faceted racial and cultural identity that characterize Black Hispanics and highlights that each individual Black Hispanic has a unique experience within a broader racial and ethnic range.[29]: 49 

Civil rights

[edit]

Data from a 2021 survey by the Pew Research Center shows that Hispanic people in the US with darker skin color are more likely to face incidents of discrimination than those with lighter skin. The survey asked participants to self-identify their skin color, and then asked series of questions about the kinds of discrimination they faced. When asked whether they faced at least one instance of discrimination in the last year, 64% of darker-skinned Hispanic adults responded that they had. When asked the same question, 54% of lighter-skinned Hispanic adults responded the same.[30] As for the specific discrimination experienced:

  • 42% of darker-skinned Hispanic people said they were treated as if they were not smart, compared to 34% of those with lighter skin.
  • 42% of darker-skinned Hispanic people said they experienced discrimination by someone who is non-Hispanic, compared to 29% of those with lighter skin.
  • 41% of darker-skinned Hispanic people said they experienced discrimination by someone who is Hispanic, compared to 25% of those with lighter skin.
  • 33% of darker-skinned Hispanic people were criticized for speaking Spanish, compared to 22% of those with lighter skin.
  • 32% of darker-skinned Hispanic people were told to go back to their country compared to 20% of those with lighter skin.
  • 27% of darker-skinned Hispanic people feared for their personal safety, compared to 20% of those with lighter skin.
  • 31% of darker-skinned Hispanic people were called offensive names, compared to 18% of those with lighter skin.
  • 16% of darker-skinned Hispanics were unfairly stopped by police, compared to 8% of those with lighter skin.[30]

In Latin America, Black Hispanics have historically had similar discrimination issues as African Americans in the US,[21] including Cuba,[31][22] where racial discrimination against Afro-Cubans continues to be a major Human Rights issue for the Cuban government,[32][33][34] even resulting in riots in Central Havana, a mostly black neighborhood in the capital.[35] In Mexico, racism against black Mexicans has been also an often ignored issue,[36][37] and it wasn't until 2020 that an option appeared on the national census allowing black Mexicans to self-identify,[38] even though polls had showed that about 2.5 million Mexicans identify as black.[38] Racism in Puerto Rico has also been well-documented,[39][40][41] and according to Black Perspectives, "in Puerto Rico, much like in the rest of Latin America, anti-Black racism is embedded in the very denial of its existence by the state and society."[42] Yet despite issues of Anti-Blackness within the Puerto Rican community there is also a large sense of cultural syncretism, and shared experience between the Puerto Rican community and African American community. An example of this would be the Puerto Rican Young Lords movement which started in Chicago and was heavily influenced by the Black Panther Party, out of a need for representation of inner city Puerto Rican/Latino communities.[43] The two groups often collaborated, forming the “Rainbow Coalition” in order to campaign for civil rights such as proper sanitation, Lead paint detection, free meals for children, and health care services in black, and brown communities across the United States.[44] Brazil's racism towards its near majority Afro-Brazilian population also has a long, well-documented history,[45][46] as well as its "whitening ideology" of the 1930s,[47] when the government encouraged European migration to successfully shift the country's racial make-up to a white majority.[47] In Honduras, racism against Afro-Hondurans has also received international attention as the country struggles with discrimination issues.[48][49] Racism in Argentina, which has a 97 percent white population,[50] is also well-documented[51][52][53] and "persists against indigenous peoples, immigrants, Afro-Argentines, mestizo Argentines, Jews and Arabs."[50] Even in countries with majority black Hispanic populations, such as the Dominican Republic, the case of racism against "darker" skinned Dominicans and neighboring Haitians is an issue.[54][55][56]

A Pew Research report published in May 2022 surveyed Afro-Latinos. Findings included 61% of Afro-Latinos saying they were discriminated against, including be more likely than other Latinos in being stopped by police, criticized by others for speaking Spanish in a public place, and people around them thinking they are "not smart."[19]

In media

[edit]

Since the early days of the movie industry in the United States of America, when Black Hispanic actors were given roles, they would usually be cast as African Americans.[57] For those with Spanish-speaking accents that betrayed an otherwise presumed African American, they may seldom have been given roles as Hispanics, and the mixed race Hispanic and Latino actors of African appearance were mostly given Hispanic roles.

Critics[who?] accuse U.S. Hispanic media, including Latin American media, of overlooking black Hispanic and Latino Americans and black Latin Americans in the telenovelas, mostly stereotyping them as impoverished people.[58][59]

Juano Hernandez was an Afro-Puerto Rican actor and writer who became notable for his role as Lucas Beauchamp in the 1949 film Intruder in the Dust, as an impoverished Black farmer who was falsely accused of killing a white man in Mississippi. Juano Hernandez received a Golden Globe nomination for his performance in 1951. Following the film, it would lead fellow actors and audience members to assume Juano Hernandez was an African American man and discredited his Puerto Rican nationality. Following this film, he would proceed to portray roles of African American men and strayed him away from Hispanic media, despite being Afro-Latino. [60]

Miles Morales, created in 2011 as one of the incarnations of Spider-Man and the protagonist of the run of Spider-Man in the Ultimate Universe of Marvel and the animated trilogy of Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse, Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse, and Spider-Man: Beyond the Spider-Verse, is an Afro-Latino American, born in Brooklyn to a Puerto Rican mother and an African American father.[61]

In January 2020, The Owl House began airing on the Disney Channel. The series would feature Luz Noceda, an Afro-Latino character whose parents are from the Dominican Republic,[62][63][64] and was based on a friend of the show's creator, Dana Terrace, Luz Batista, who insisted that the character be Dominican like her.[65]

In February 2021, LATV Networks, LLC premiered Blacktinidad, the first national TV series focusing specifically on the black Latin experience.[66]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "Supplementary Tables on Race and Hispanic Origin: 2020 Census Redistricting Data (P.L. 94-171)".
  2. ^ a b c d e Humes, Karen R.; Nicholas A. Jones; Roberto R. Ramirez (March 2011). "Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2010" (PDF) (Press release). U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 29, 2011. Retrieved November 3, 2016.
  3. ^ a b "U.S. Census Bureau Guidance on the Presentation and Comparison of Race and Hispanic Origin Data". U.S. Census Bureau. June 12, 2003. Retrieved January 23, 2016.
  4. ^ López, Gustavo; Gonzalez-Barrera, Ana (March 1, 2016). "Afro-Latino: A deeply rooted identity among U.S. Hispanics". Fact Tank. Pew Research Center.
  5. ^ "Race: 2010 Census of Population, P94-171 Redistricting Data File". U.S. Census Bureau. 2010. Retrieved November 3, 2016.
  6. ^ Lopez, Mark Hugo; Krogstad, Jens Manuel; Passel, Jeffrey S. "Who is Hispanic?". Pew Research Center. Retrieved March 31, 2022.
  7. ^ "Review | February 2012: 1493 by Charles Mann '76 | Amherst College". www.amherst.edu. Retrieved October 28, 2024.
  8. ^ a b "ACS Demographic and Housing Estimates: 2013 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates". US Census Bureau. 2013. Archived from the original on January 2, 2016.
  9. ^ "Coming Out As Black, When You Were Hispanic". npr.org. June 6, 2013. Retrieved January 23, 2016.
  10. ^ Szot, Hilary S. (February 26, 2014). "Black History Month: New Generation Of Afro-Latinos Tackles Race And Identity". Fox News Latino. Retrieved November 3, 2016.
  11. ^ Bailey, Benjamin (2006). "Dominican-American Etbnic/Racial Identities and United States Social Categories". International Migration Review. 35 (3): 677–708. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7379.2001.tb00036.x. JSTOR 2675839. S2CID 144585566.
  12. ^ a b Caliendo, Stephen (July 18, 2017). Inequality in America, Race, Poverty, and Fulfilling Democracy's Promise (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. pp. 141–156. ISBN 9780813350530.
  13. ^ Dixon, Heriberto (1982). "Who Ever Heard of a Black Cuban?". Afro-Hispanic Review. 1 (3): 10–12. ISSN 0278-8969. JSTOR 23053883.
  14. ^ a b Shao, Lin; Hwang, Syni-An; Pantea, Cristian; Kielb, Christine; Fitzgerald, Edward. "Childhood Asthma Hospitalizations and Ambient Air Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations in Bronx County, New York". Archives of Environmental Health. 59 (5): 266–75 – via Proquest.
  15. ^ "Blackness and Latinidad are not mutually exclusive. Here's what it means to be Afro-Latino in America". CNN. September 26, 2021.
  16. ^ Cruz, José E. (2000). "Interminority Relations in Urban Settings". In Yvette Marie Alex-Assensoh; Lawrence J. Hanks (eds.). Black and Multiracial Politics in America. NYU Press. pp. 96–97. ISBN 978-0-8147-0663-3. Retrieved November 4, 2016.
  17. ^ Torres, Andrés (1995). Between Melting Pot and Mosaic: African Americans and Puerto Ricans in the New York Political Economy. Temple University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-56639-280-8. Retrieved November 4, 2016.
  18. ^ a b c Cornejo Villavicencio, Karla (2020). "Flint". The Undocumented Americans. New York: One World (published March 24, 2020). pp. 95–117. ISBN 9780399592683.
  19. ^ a b Gonzalez-Barrera, Ana (May 2, 2022). "About 6 million U.S. adults identify as Afro-Latino". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on May 6, 2022.
  20. ^ Cuevas, Adolfo G.; Dawson, Beverly Araujo; Williams, David R. (December 2016). "Race and Skin Color in Latino Health: An Analytic Review". American Journal of Public Health. 106 (12): 2131–2136. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2016.303452. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 5104999. PMID 27736206.
  21. ^ a b Day, Ashleigh; O'Shay-Wallace, Sydney; Matthew, Seeger; McElmurry, Shawn (January 31, 2019). "Informational Sources, Social Media Use, and Race in the Flint, Michigan, Water Crisis". Communication Studies. 70 (3): 352–376 – via Taylor & Francis.
  22. ^ a b "Flint Water Crisis: Everything You Need to Know". www.nrdc.org. October 8, 2024.
  23. ^ Fiscella, Kevin; Franks, Peter; Doescher, Mark P.; Saver, Barry G. (2002). "Disparities in Health Care by Race, Ethnicity, and Language among the Insured: Findings from a National Sample". Medical Care. 40 (1): 52–59. ISSN 0025-7079 – via JSTOR.
  24. ^ Poti, Jennifer; Mendez, Michelle; Wen, Ng Shu; Barry, Popkin (September 2016). "Highly Processed and Ready-to-Eat Packaged Food and Beverage Purchases Differ by Race/Ethnicity among US Households". The Journal of Nutrition. 146 (9) – via Elsevier.
  25. ^ Mendoza, Kenny; Sevilla-Gonzalez, Magdalena; Deirdre, Tobias; Sotres-Alvarez, Daniela; Yu, Bing; Boerwinkle, Eric; Sun, Qi; Hu, Frank; Qi, Qibin; Kaplan, Robert; Mattei, Josiemer (July 1, 2024). "The Association Between a Metabolomics Signature Reflective of Ultra-Processed Food Intake and Type 2 Diabetes Risk in the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos". Current Developments in Nutrition. 8 – via ClinicalKey.
  26. ^ Rana, Jamal; Liu, Jennifer; Moffet, Howard; Jaffe, Marc; Sidney, Stephen; Karter, Andrew (2016). "Ethnic Differences in Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in a Large Contemporary Population". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 50 (5): 637–641 – via Elsevier.
  27. ^ Pichardo, Margaret; Ferrucci, Leah; Molina, Yamile; Esserman, Denise; Irwin, Melinda (November 1, 2023). "Structural Racism, Lifestyle Behaviors, and Obesity-related Cancers among Black and Hispanic/Latino Adults in the United States: A Narrative Review". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 32 (11) – via AACR.
  28. ^ "Key Data on Health and Health Care by Race and Ethnicity". KFF. June 11, 2024. Retrieved November 24, 2024.
  29. ^ a b Pinn, Anthony B.; Benjamin Valentin (2001). Ties That Bind: African American and Hispanic American/Latino/a Theologies in Dialogue. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-8264-1326-0.
  30. ^ a b Noe-Bustamante, Luis; Gonzalez-Barrera, Ana; Edwards, Khadijah; Mora, Lauren; Lopez, Mark Hugo (November 4, 2021). "Majority of Latinos Say Skin Color Impacts Opportunity in America and Shapes Daily Life". Pew Research Center's Hispanic Trends Project. Retrieved April 1, 2022.
  31. ^ Mirabal, Nancy (November 10, 2017). "The Cuban Revolution and the Myth of Racial Inclusivity". AAIHS. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
  32. ^ Fernandes, Sujatha (May 24, 2016). "Afro-Cuban Activists Fight Racism Between Two Fires". The Nation. ISSN 0027-8378. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
  33. ^ "Cuba – Race and Equality". Institute on Race, Equality and Human Rights. October 1, 2020. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
  34. ^ "African-Americans: Blacks in Cuba 'treated with callous disregard' - CNN.com". www.cnn.com. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
  35. ^ Robinson, Eugene (November 12, 2000). "Cuba Begins to Answer Its Race Question". The Washington Post. Retrieved September 10, 2020.
  36. ^ León, Cristina V. Masferrer; Essport, Marcela Suárez. ""I'm Not Sitting Next To You": Education and Racism in Afro-Mexican Communities". Diálogos sobre educación. Temas actuales en investigación educativa. 7 (13): 1–16.
  37. ^ "In Mexico, Racism is Alive and Well". Banderas News. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
  38. ^ a b Russell, Benjamin (June 22, 2020). "Mexico's Messy Reckoning With Racism". Americas Quarterly. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
  39. ^ "The Hidden Narrative of Racial Inequity in Puerto Rico". Non Profit News | Nonprofit Quarterly. August 26, 2019. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
  40. ^ Cruz-Janzen, Marta I. (2003). "Out of the Closet: Racial Amnesia, Avoidance, and DenialRacism among Puerto Ricans". Race, Gender & Class. 10 (3): 64–81. JSTOR 41675088. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
  41. ^ "Puerto Ricans Share Personal Stories to Combat the Myth that Racism Doesn't Exist on the Island". Remezcla. June 16, 2020. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
  42. ^ "'Racialization works differently here in Puerto Rico, do not bring your U.S.-centric ideas about race here!'". AAIHS. March 3, 2020. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
  43. ^ Gonzales, Michael (December 2019). "Latin Power to Latin People': the Black Panther Party's Influence on the Revolutionary Politics of the Young Lords Organization". Journal of African American Studies. 23 (4): 1–1 – via EBSCO.
  44. ^ "Young Lords | Museum of the City of New York". www.mcny.org. Retrieved October 19, 2024.
  45. ^ Amparo, Thiago (June 8, 2020). "Why America's Protests Resonate So Deeply in Brazil". Americas Quarterly. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
  46. ^ McCoy, Terence (June 28, 2020). "In Brazil, the death of a poor black child in the care of rich white woman brings a racial reckoning". The Washington Post. Retrieved September 10, 2020.
  47. ^ a b Telles, Edward (October 1, 2020). "Racial Discrimination and Miscegenation: The Experience in Brazil". United Nations. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
  48. ^ "Afro-Hondurans". Minority Rights Group. June 19, 2015. Retrieved October 19, 2020.
  49. ^ Nadel, Joshua (June 14, 2014). "Race and racism in Honduran soccer and society". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 19, 2020.
  50. ^ a b "Racial Discrimination in Argentina". Race, Racism and the Law. Human Rights Documentation Center. Retrieved October 16, 2020.
  51. ^ "Racial Discrimination in Argentina". Dayton University. Archived from the original on October 24, 2017. Retrieved October 16, 2020.
  52. ^ Chough, Thomas (May 31, 2018). "My Experience with Racial Tension in Argentina". The Bubble. Retrieved October 16, 2020.
  53. ^ "Blackout: How Argentina 'Eliminated' Africans From Its History And Conscience". International Business Times. June 4, 2013. Retrieved October 16, 2020.
  54. ^ "Antihaitianismo: Systemic Xenophobia and Racism in the Dominican Republic". June 29, 2017. Retrieved October 16, 2020.
  55. ^ Planas, Roque (July 7, 2015). "Where Anti-Haitianism In The Dominican Republic Comes From". HuffPost. Retrieved October 16, 2020.
  56. ^ Taub, Amanda (June 18, 2015). "Dominican Republic strips thousands of black residents of citizenship, may now expel them". Vox. Retrieved October 16, 2020.
  57. ^ "Myth: Hispanics are portrayed accurately on TV". thehispanicmyth.com. Archived from the original on June 4, 2008. Retrieved May 17, 2008.
  58. ^ Quinonez, Ernesto (June 19, 2003). "Y Tu Black Mama Tambien: Latinos Are Racist, Too. Just Turn On The Tv". Newsweek. Archived from the original on October 27, 2008. Retrieved May 2, 2008.
  59. ^ Fletcher, Michael A. (August 6, 2000). "Racial Bias Charged On Spanish-language Tv". sun-sentinel.com. Archived from the original on September 15, 2012. Retrieved November 4, 2016.
  60. ^ Simone, Nydia (April 20, 2023). "The Struggle For Afro-Latinx Visibility in Media Still Exists". Popsugar. Retrieved November 14, 2024.
  61. ^ "'Across The Spider-Verse' And The Latino Legacy Of Spider-Man". June 7, 2023.
  62. ^ Terrace, Dana (September 16, 2020). Drawing Cartoons to Save Democracy (Livestream). [Archived by nanopulga098 on YouTube on September 17, 2020]. Twitch. Event occurs at 1:17:40. Retrieved February 9, 2022.
  63. ^ Elderkin, Beth (October 17, 2019). "The Personal Story Behind Owl House's Magical New Disney Heroine". io9. Archived from the original on October 18, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2020.
  64. ^ Nolan, L.D. (January 9, 2020). "The Owl House Stars Hirsch, Robles Reveal Their Hopes For the Show". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on January 10, 2020. Retrieved May 1, 2020.
  65. ^ Brown, Tracy (January 10, 2020). "For its creator, Disney's 'The Owl House' is the best revenge". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on February 1, 2020. Retrieved August 10, 2020.
  66. ^ Hernandez, Beatriz. "New Series". LATV. Archived from the original on February 25, 2021. Retrieved May 11, 2022.

Further reading

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  • The Afro-Latin@ Project - The Afro Latin@ Project aims to document, promote, coordinate and support the development of Afro-Latin@ studies and grass roots activities in the United States. This primary focus is informed and enriched by the historical and contemporary experience of African-descendant peoples in the Americas.
  • RUSQ Afro-Latino Archives - An extensive list of books, films, memoirs, databases, and articles which provide more insight into the Afro-Latino experience, in and out of the United States.
[edit]
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