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Lake Geneva

Coordinates: 46°27′N 6°33′E / 46.450°N 6.550°E / 46.450; 6.550
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Lac lŽman)
For other uses, see Lake Geneva (disambiguation) and Geneva Lake.

Lake Geneva
Satellite image
Lake Geneva is located in Rhône-Alpes
Lake Geneva
Lake Geneva
Lake Geneva is located in Canton of Vaud
Lake Geneva
Lake Geneva
Lake Geneva is located in Canton of Valais
Lake Geneva
Lake Geneva
Lake Geneva is located in Switzerland
Lake Geneva
Lake Geneva
Lake Geneva is located in France
Lake Geneva
Lake Geneva
Lake Geneva is located in Alps
Lake Geneva
Lake Geneva
LocationSwitzerland, France
Coordinates46°27′N 6°33′E / 46.450°N 6.550°E / 46.450; 6.550
Lake typeGlacial lake
Primary inflowsRhône, Dranse
Primary outflowsRhône
Catchment area7,975 square kilometres (3,079 sq mi)
Basin countriesSwitzerland, France
Max. length73 km (45 mi)
Max. width14 km (8.7 mi)
Surface area580.03 km2 (224 sq mi)
Average depth153.4 metres (503 feet)
Max. depth310 metres (1,020 feet)
Water volume89 km3 (72 million acre⋅ft; 21 cu mi)
Residence time11.4 years
Shore length1156 km (97 mi)
Surface elevation372 m (1,220 ft)
IslandsÎle de Peilz, Château de Chillon, Île de Salagnon, Île de la Harpe, Île Rousseau, Île de Choisi
SettlementsGeneva (CH), Lausanne (CH), Évian (F), Montreux (CH), Thonon (F), Vevey (CH) (see list)
Map
Official nameLes Grangettes
Designated11 September 1990
Reference no.504[1]
Official nameRives du Lac Léman
Designated8 April 1991
Reference no.519[2]
1 Shore length is not a well-defined measure.

Lake Geneva[note 1] is a deep lake on the north side of the Alps, shared between Switzerland and France. It is one of the largest lakes in Western Europe and the largest on the course of the Rhône. Sixty percent (345.31 km2 or 133.32 sq mi) of the lake belongs to Switzerland (the cantons of Vaud, Geneva and Valais) and forty percent (234.71 km2 or 90.62 sq mi) to France (the department of Haute-Savoie).

Name

[edit]

While the exact origins of the name are unknown, the name Lacus Lemanus was in use during the time of Julius Caesar.[4] Lemannus comes from Ancient Greek Liménos Límnē (Λιμένος Λίμνη) meaning "port's lake".[citation needed] It became Lacus Lausonius,[what language is this?] although this name was also used for a town or district on the lake, Lacus Losanetes,[what language is this?] and then the Lac de Lausanne in the Middle Ages.[citation needed] Following the rise of Geneva it became Lac de Genève[5] (translated into English as Lake Geneva), but Le Léman was the common name on all local maps[6][7] and is the customary name in the French language. In contemporary English, the name Lake Geneva has become predominant.[4]

Geography

[edit]

Lake Geneva is divided into three parts because of its different types of formation (sedimentation, tectonic folding, glacial erosion):[3]

  1. Haut Lac ('Upper Lake'), the eastern part from the Rhône estuary to the line of Meillerie–Rivaz
  2. Grand Lac ('Large Lake'), the largest and deepest basin with the lake's largest width
  3. Petit Lac ('Small Lake'), the most south-west, narrower, and less-deep part from Yvoire–Promenthoux next Prangins to the exit in Geneva

According to the Swiss Federal Office of Topography, Swisstopo, Lac de Genève designates that part of the Petit Lac which lies within the cantonal borders of Geneva (excluding the cantonal exclave Céligny), so about from Versoix–Hermance to the Rhône outflow in Geneva.[8]

View of Lake Geneva about between Vevey in front, Lausanne in the back behind Mont Pèlerin (CH) on the right and Évian-les-Bains (F) on the left, shot from a place between Caux and Glion above Montreux

The Chablais Alps border is its southern shore, and the western Bernese Alps lie over its eastern side. The high summits of Grand Combin and Mont Blanc are visible from some places.

The lake lies on the course of the Rhône. The river has its source at the Rhône Glacier near the Grimsel Pass to the east of the lake and flows down through the canton of Valais, entering the lake between Villeneuve and Le Bouveret, before flowing slowly towards its egress at Geneva. Other tributaries are La Dranse, L'Aubonne, La Morges, La Venoge, La Vuachère, and La Veveyse.

View of the lake and the Chablais Alps from Caux

Lake Geneva is the largest body of water in Switzerland, and greatly exceeds in size all others that are connected with the main valleys of the Alps. It is in the shape of a crescent, with the horns pointing south, the northern shore being 95 km (59 mi) and the southern shore 72 km (45 mi) in length. The crescent form was more regular in a recent geological period, when the lake extended to Bex, about 18 km (11 mi) south of Villeneuve. The detritus of the Rhône has filled up this portion of the bed of the lake, and it appears that within the historical period, the waters extended about 2 km (1.2 mi) beyond the present eastern margin of the lake. The greatest depth of the lake, in the broad portion between Évian-les-Bains and Lausanne, where it is just 13 km (8.1 mi) in width, has been measured as 310 m (1,020 ft), putting the bottom of the lake at 62 m (203 ft) above sea level. The lake's surface is the lowest point of the cantons of Valais and Vaud.[9] The culminating point of the lake's drainage basin is Monte Rosa at 4,634 metres above sea level.[10]

CGN paddle steamer in 1926 near Vevey with the Dents du Midi in background

The beauty of the shores of the lake and of the sites of many of the places near its banks has long been celebrated. However, it is only from the eastern end of the lake, between Vevey and Villeneuve, that the scenery assumes an Alpine character. On the south side, the mountains of Savoy and Valais are for the most part rugged and sombre, while those of the northern shore fall in gentle vine-covered slopes, thickly set with villages and castles.[9]

The snowy peaks of the Mont Blanc Massif are shut out from the western end of the lake by the Voirons mountain, and from its eastern end by the bolder summits of the Grammont, Cornettes de Bise, and Dent d'Oche, but are seen from Geneva, and between Nyon and Morges. From Vevey to Bex, where the lake originally extended, the shores are enclosed by comparatively high and bold mountains, and the vista terminates in the grand portal of the defile of St. Maurice, cleft to a depth of nearly 2,700 m (8,900 ft) between the opposite peaks of the Dents du Midi and the Dent de Morcles.[9]

The shore between Nyon and Lausanne is called La Côte because it is flatter. Between Lausanne and Vevey it is called Lavaux and is famous for its hilly vineyards.[11][12]

The average surface elevation of 372 m (1,220 ft) above sea level is controlled by the Seujet Dam [fr] in Geneva.[13]

Climate

[edit]

Due to climate change, the average temperature of deep water (more than 300 metres or 980 feet deep) increased from 4.4 °C (39.9 °F) in 1963 to 5.5 °C (41.9 °F) in 2016 (an increase of 1.1 °C or 2.0 °F in 53 years), while the average temperature of surface water (five metres or 16 feet deep) increased from 10.9 °C (51.6 °F) in 1970 to 12.9 °C (55.2 °F) in 2016 (up 2 °C or 3.6 °F in 46 years).[14]

Climate data for Genève–Cointrin (Reference period 1981–2010), Records (1901–2015)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 17.3
(63.1) 		20.6
(69.1) 		24.9
(76.8) 		27.5
(81.5) 		33.8
(92.8) 		36.5
(97.7) 		39.7
(103.5) 		37.6
(99.7) 		34.8
(94.6) 		27.3
(81.1) 		23.2
(73.8) 		20.8
(69.4) 		39.7
(103.5)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 4.5
(40.1) 		6.3
(43.3) 		11.2
(52.2) 		14.9
(58.8) 		19.7
(67.5) 		23.5
(74.3) 		26.5
(79.7) 		25.8
(78.4) 		20.9
(69.6) 		15.4
(59.7) 		8.8
(47.8) 		5.3
(41.5) 		15.2
(59.4)
Daily mean °C (°F) 1.5
(34.7) 		2.5
(36.5) 		6.2
(43.2) 		9.7
(49.5) 		14.2
(57.6) 		17.7
(63.9) 		20.2
(68.4) 		19.5
(67.1) 		15.4
(59.7) 		11.1
(52.0) 		5.5
(41.9) 		2.8
(37.0) 		10.5
(50.9)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −1.3
(29.7) 		−1
(30) 		1.6
(34.9) 		4.8
(40.6) 		9.1
(48.4) 		12.3
(54.1) 		14.4
(57.9) 		14.0
(57.2) 		10.8
(51.4) 		7.4
(45.3) 		2.4
(36.3) 		0.1
(32.2) 		6.2
(43.2)
Record low °C (°F) −19.9
(−3.8) 		−20.0
(−4.0) 		−13.3
(8.1) 		−5.2
(22.6) 		−2.2
(28.0) 		1.3
(34.3) 		3.0
(37.4) 		4.9
(40.8) 		0.2
(32.4) 		−4.7
(23.5) 		−10.9
(12.4) 		−17.0
(1.4) 		−20.0
(−4.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 76
(3.0) 		68
(2.7) 		70
(2.8) 		72
(2.8) 		84
(3.3) 		92
(3.6) 		79
(3.1) 		82
(3.2) 		100
(3.9) 		105
(4.1) 		88
(3.5) 		90
(3.5) 		1,005
(39.6)
Average snowfall cm (inches) 10.8
(4.3) 		8.1
(3.2) 		2.8
(1.1) 		0.2
(0.1) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		2.8
(1.1) 		7.4
(2.9) 		32.1
(12.6)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 9.5 8.1 9.0 8.9 10.6 9.3 7.6 7.9 8.1 10.1 9.9 10.0 109.0
Average snowy days (≥ 1.0 cm) 2.5 2.0 0.9 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 2.0 8.2
Average relative humidity (%) 81 76 69 67 69 66 64 67 73 79 81 81 73
Mean monthly sunshine hours 59 88 154 177 197 235 263 237 185 117 66 49 1,828
Percent possible sunshine 23 33 45 46 45 53 58 58 53 38 26 20 44
Source 1: MeteoSwiss[15]
Source 2: KNMI[16]
Climate data for Pully (Lausanne) (1981–2010), Extremes (1981–2010)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 14.9
(58.8) 		15.8
(60.4) 		22.6
(72.7) 		25.5
(77.9) 		31.3
(88.3) 		33.6
(92.5) 		35.2
(95.4) 		37.1
(98.8) 		28.6
(83.5) 		25.4
(77.7) 		19.8
(67.6) 		17.7
(63.9) 		37.1
(98.8)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 4.4
(39.9) 		5.6
(42.1) 		10.1
(50.2) 		14.0
(57.2) 		18.7
(65.7) 		22.4
(72.3) 		25.0
(77.0) 		24.4
(75.9) 		19.8
(67.6) 		14.6
(58.3) 		8.6
(47.5) 		5.3
(41.5) 		14.4
(57.9)
Daily mean °C (°F) 1.2
(34.2) 		3.0
(37.4) 		6.6
(43.9) 		10.0
(50.0) 		14.4
(57.9) 		17.8
(64.0) 		20.3
(68.5) 		19.7
(67.5) 		15.8
(60.4) 		11.6
(52.9) 		6.1
(43.0) 		3.2
(37.8) 		10.9
(51.6)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 0.3
(32.5) 		0.7
(33.3) 		3.5
(38.3) 		6.4
(43.5) 		10.7
(51.3) 		13.8
(56.8) 		16.1
(61.0) 		15.9
(60.6) 		12.6
(54.7) 		9.1
(48.4) 		4.2
(39.6) 		1.4
(34.5) 		7.9
(46.2)
Record low °C (°F) −16.7
(1.9) 		−12.7
(9.1) 		−9.1
(15.6) 		−2.9
(26.8) 		2.1
(35.8) 		5.2
(41.4) 		9
(48) 		8.2
(46.8) 		4.4
(39.9) 		−1.2
(29.8) 		−6.2
(20.8) 		−10.1
(13.8) 		−16.7
(1.9)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 77
(3.0) 		67
(2.6) 		78
(3.1) 		87
(3.4) 		117
(4.6) 		112
(4.4) 		92
(3.6) 		110
(4.3) 		114
(4.5) 		113
(4.4) 		93
(3.7) 		92
(3.6) 		1,153
(45.4)
Average snowfall cm (inches) 10.9
(4.3) 		14.3
(5.6) 		1.6
(0.6) 		0.2
(0.1) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		1.1
(0.4) 		7.0
(2.8) 		35.1
(13.8)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 10.1 8.8 10.2 9.8 12.1 10.4 9.0 9.5 8.8 10.1 10.2 10.7 119.7
Average snowy days (≥ 1.0 cm) 2.9 2.8 1.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 1.9 9.8
Average relative humidity (%) 78 73 68 66 67 66 65 68 73 78 78 78 72
Mean monthly sunshine hours 72 97 159 179 201 229 252 234 183 128 79 58 1,872
Percent possible sunshine 29 37 46 47 48 54 59 58 52 42 32 26 46
Source 1: MeteoSwiss[17]
Source 2: StatistiqueVaud[18]

Bise

[edit]

Lake Geneva (and particularly the lakeside parts of the city of Geneva) can be affected by the cold Bise, a northeasterly wind. This can lead to severe icing in winter.[19] The strength of the Bise wind can be determined by the difference in air pressure between Geneva and Güttingen in canton of Thurgau. The Bise arises when the air pressure in Güttingen is higher than in Geneva.[20]

Environment

[edit]
Bath house of a private home on the lake, in canton of Vaud, 1968
Swimming in the lake
Lavaux vineyards on Lake Geneva
Île de Peilz

In 563, according to the writings of Gregory of Tours and Marius Aventicensis, a tsunami wave swept along the lake, destroying the fort of Tauredunum and other settlements, and causing numerous deaths in Geneva. Simulations indicate that this Tauredunum event was most likely caused by a massive landslide near the Rhône delta, which caused a wave eight metres (26 ft) high to reach Geneva within 70 minutes.[21][22][23] In 888, the town was part of the new Kingdom of Burgundy, and, with it, was absorbed into the Holy Roman Empire in 1033.

In the late 1960s, pollution made it dangerous to swim at some beaches of the lake; indeed, visibility underwater was near zero.[24][25] By the 1980s, intense environmental pollution (eutrophication) had almost wiped out all the fish. Endemic whitefish species Coregonus fera was last recorded in the lake in 1920 and is now extinct. Although the name fera is still used for the only coregonid present in the lake, this is not the original species but the introduced C. palaea. Today, pollution levels have been dramatically cut back, and it is again considered safe to swim in the lake.[26][27] Major leisure activities practiced include sailing, wind surfing, boating (including water skiing and wake-boarding), rowing, scuba diving, and bathing.

A total of four submarines have plied the depths of Lake Geneva.[28] In 1964, Jacques Piccard launched a tourist-oriented submarine, the Auguste Piccard (named for his explorer father), for the Swiss National Exhibition, meant to honor the Expo 64 theme of accomplishments by Swiss engineers and industry.[29] After operating through to 1965 in Lake Geneva, Piccard used the vessel for scientific exploration in other parts of the world.[29] Piccard later built the F.-A. Forel, launched in Lake Geneva in 1978 and used primarily for scientific research until it was retired in 2005.[29] In 2011, in a collaborative operation led by École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, two Mir submersibles were used for ten weeks to conduct extensive scientific research in Lake Geneva.[28]

On a scientific footnote, in 1827, Lake Geneva was the site for the first measurement of the speed of sound in (fresh) water.[30] French mathematician Jacques Charles François Sturm and Swiss physicist Daniel Collodon used two moored boats, separated by a measured distance, as the transmitting and receiving platforms for the sounds of exploding gunpowder. The loud airborne sound coupled into the lake, establishing a loud underwater sound that could be measured at a distance. The flash of the exploding gunpowder provided the visual starting cue for the timepiece, and the underwater explosion sound striking a bell provided the finish cue.

The lake is rich in wildlife, especially birds: both the common buzzard and the red kite breed here in considerable numbers.

Sport events

[edit]

Yacht racing is a popular sport, and high-performance catamarans have been developed specifically for the lake.[31] The design of the Alinghi 5, the defender of the 2010 America's Cup, was influenced by those racing catamarans.[31] The best-known event, the Bol d'or [fr] (not to be confused with other events having the same name) runs from Geneva to the end of the lake and back.[32]

The Tour du Lac rowing event also takes place on Lake Geneva. Competitors row once around the entire lake, making this 160-kilometre (99 mi) event the longest non-stop rowing regatta in the world.

Several competitions for swimmers are organised yearly, the longest of which spans the length of the lake from Chillon Castle to Geneva (70km) and is known as The Signature.[33] Other events include the crossing of the lake from Lausanne to Evian (13km),[34] from Montreux to Clarens (1.8 km),[35] in Geneva (1.8 km),[36] all in summer, and the Coupe de Noël, 125m in Geneva in December.[37]

Towns and villages

[edit]
List of towns and villages on Lake Geneva
Starting from the entry of Rhône River on the east end, with the southern shore to the left.
Southern shore Northern shore
Haut Lac

Canton of Valais (VS):

Haute-Savoie:

Canton of Vaud (VD):

Grand Lac

Haute-Savoie:

VD:

Petit Lac

( * Lac de Genève,[8]
see also Geography)

Haute-Savoie:

Canton of Geneva (GE):

VD:

GE:

Topographic map

[edit]
Lake Geneva on the Swiss National Map (1:50'000)

Notable residents

[edit]

Edmund Ludlow, famous as one who had signed the death warrant of English King Charles I, was granted on 16 April 1662 protection in and continued to live at Vevey until his death in 1692.[38] Mary and Percy Shelley and Lord Byron holidayed by the lake and wrote ghost stories, one of which became the basis for the novel Frankenstein.[39] The Empress Elisabeth of Austria (Sisi) was stabbed to death on the quayside in Geneva in September 1898. Vladimir Lenin rented a little "chalet" at the French bank, near Geneva.[40] Actor Charlie Chaplin spent his final years and died in Vevey (there is a memorial statue of him along the promenade; his home at Corsier-sur-Vevey is now a museum of his life and career). Actors Noël Coward, James Mason, Sir Peter Ustinov, Richard Burton, and Audrey Hepburn all lived in villages on the shores of or in view of the lake. David Bowie moved to a chalet to the north of Lake Geneva in 1976, which inspired him to take up painting and informed the first stages of the "Berlin Trilogy". Pop singer Phil Collins lives in a home overlooking the lake.[41] Rock band Queen owned and operated Mountain Recording Studios (which is still in use today) in Montreux, and a statue of lead singer Freddie Mercury, who also owned a second home in Montreux, stands on the northern shore of the lake. Writer Vladimir Nabokov also took residence in Montreux, where he died in 1977. Former Formula 1 driver Michael Schumacher lives with his family in a home overlooking the lake.

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Les Grangettes". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.
  2. ^ "Rives du Lac Léman". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.
  3. ^ a b "03 - Suisse sud-ouest". Swiss National Map 1:200 000 - Switzerland on four sheets. Federal Office of Topography, swisstopo, Swiss Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sport. 2009. Archived from the original on 11 April 2014. Retrieved 12 November 2013.
  4. ^ a b "What you call Lake Geneva really does matter, according to a poll". Le News. 28 November 2016. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
  5. ^ Orell, Fussli et compagnie, ed. (1820). Voyage pittoresque au lac de Genève ou Léman (in French). Retrieved 28 July 2019.
  6. ^ "Le Léman". map.geo.admin.ch (in French). Swisstopo. Retrieved 13 October 2021.
  7. ^ "Le Léman". Géoportail (in French). Institut national de l'information géographique et forestière. Retrieved 13 October 2021.
  8. ^ a b "270 - Genève". Swiss National Map 1:50 000 - Switzerland on 78 maps. Federal Office of Topography, swisstopo, Swiss Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sport. 2011. Archived from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 12 November 2013.
  9. ^ a b c John Ball, A Guide to the Western Alps, p. 254
  10. ^ 1:25,000 topographic map (Map). Swisstopo. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
  11. ^ Cuckoo, Paul (26 October 2007). "Switzerland mastering the art of wine making". The Economic Times. India Times. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
  12. ^ Mourby, Adrian (19 August 2007). "European Breaks: Three suns, one grape, a lot of flavour". The Independent. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
  13. ^ Seujet / Lac Léman Archived 7 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine rhone-geneve.ch. Retrieved on 20 July 2009
  14. ^ La lettre du Léman, bulletin of the Commission internationale pour la protection des eaux du Léman, number 54, June 2017, page 3.
  15. ^ "Climate normals Genève–Cointrin (Reference period 1981–2010)" (PDF). Zürich-Airport, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Office of Metreology and Climatology, MeteoSwiss. 2 July 2014. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
  16. ^ "Genève–Cointrin extreme values". KNMI. Retrieved 8 November 2011.
  17. ^ "Climate normals Pully (Reference period 1981−2010)" (PDF). Zurich Airport, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Office of Metreology and Climatology, MeteoSwiss. 2 July 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
  18. ^ (in French) http://www.scris.vd.ch/Default.aspx?DocID=8033&DomId=1961.
  19. ^ "La bise va se calmer après une journée chaotique, mais plusieurs écoles vont rester fermées" (in French). Geneva: RTS Radio Télévision Suisse. 17 January 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
  20. ^ "Bisendiagramm". Appenzell, Switzerland: MeteoGroup Schweiz AG. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
  21. ^ Kremer, K.; Simpson, G.; Girardclos, S. P. (2012). "Giant Lake Geneva tsunami in AD 563". Nature Geoscience. 5 (11): 756–757. Bibcode:2012NatGe...5..756K. doi:10.1038/ngeo1618.
  22. ^ "Tsunamis on Lake Geneva: Lake monsters". The Economist. 28 October 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2012.
  23. ^ Marshall, Jessica (28 October 2012). "Ancient tsunami devastated Lake Geneva shoreline". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2012.11670. S2CID 130238584. Retrieved 5 November 2012.
  24. ^ "Convention concerning protection of the waters of Lake Geneva against pollution" (PDF). United Nations Treaty Collection. 16 November 1962. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
  25. ^ Bergier, Jean-François (2008). Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse (in French). Vol. 7. Editions Gilles Attinger, Hauterive. ISBN 978-2-88256-197-8. Archived from the original on 28 March 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2009.
  26. ^ "Baisse du Phosphore dans le Léman" (PDF) (in French). Commission Internationale pour la Protection du Léman (CIPEL). 9 May 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 January 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2009.
  27. ^ Monna, F.; Domnik J.; Loiseau J.-L.; Pardos M.; Arpagaus P. (1999). "Origin and evolution of Pb in sediments of Lake Geneva (Switzerland-France). Establishing a stable Pb record". Environmental Science & Technology. 33 (17). Washington, DC: American Chemical Society: 2850–2857. Bibcode:1999EnST...33.2850M. doi:10.1021/es9902468. ISSN 0013-936X.
  28. ^ a b Dubuis, Etienne (10 June 2011). "A la découverte du Léman". Le Temps (in French). Retrieved 1 November 2014.
  29. ^ a b c Dubuis, Etienne (10 June 2011). "Ces submersibles qui ont plongé dans le Léman". Le Temps (in French). Retrieved 18 April 2019.
  30. ^ Guichonnet, Paul (2002). Nature et histoire du Léman: le guide du Léman (in French). Divonne-Les-Bains: Editions Cabedita. p. 235. ISBN 9782882951205.
  31. ^ a b "alinghi.com". Archived from the original on 8 February 2010.
  32. ^ "boldor.ch". Archived from the original on 16 June 2012.
  33. ^ "LGSA Signature swim". www.lakegenevaswimmingassociation.com.
  34. ^ "13 km à la nage sur le Léman, entre Lausanne et Evian !". rcf.fr.
  35. ^ "Commune de Montreux - Traversée à la nage Montreux-Clarens". www.montreux.ch. Archived from the original on 1 October 2020. Retrieved 13 January 2020.
  36. ^ Mertenat, Thierry (31 July 2016). "La traversée du lac à la nage réussit sa première édition". TDG – via www.tdg.ch.
  37. ^ "Près de 2500 courageux à la Coupe de Noël". Tribune de Genève. 15 December 2019.
  38. ^ Macaulay, History of England, Vol 1, Page 400, J H Dent 1953.
  39. ^ Sunstein, Emily W. (1989). Mary Shelley: Romance and Reality (1991 ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 478. ISBN 0-8018-4218-2.
  40. ^ "The summit: The Russians make their entrance". The NY Times. 19 November 1985. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
  41. ^ Michner, Joerg (25 February 2007). "Fed-up Swiss taxpayers call time on concessions for wealthy foreigners". Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
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