Jump to content

Astronaut

Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Taikonauts)
"Cosmonaut" redirects here. For other uses, see Astronaut (disambiguation) and Cosmonaut (disambiguation).

NASA astronaut Bruce McCandless II using a Manned Maneuvering Unit outside Space Shuttle Challenger on shuttle mission STS-41-B in 1984

An astronaut (from the Ancient Greek ἄστρον (astron), meaning 'star', and ναύτης (nautes), meaning 'sailor') is a person trained, equipped, and deployed by a human spaceflight program to serve as a commander or crew member aboard a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the term is sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists, and tourists.[1][2]

"Astronaut" technically applies to all human space travelers regardless of nationality. However, astronauts fielded by Russia or the Soviet Union are typically known instead as cosmonauts (from the Russian "kosmos" (космос), meaning "space", also borrowed from Greek κόσμος).[3] Comparatively recent developments in crewed spaceflight made by China have led to the rise of the term taikonaut (from the Mandarin "tàikōng" (太空), meaning "space"), although its use is somewhat informal and its origin is unclear. In China, the People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps astronauts and their foreign counterparts are all officially called hángtiānyuán (航天员, meaning "heaven navigator" or literally "heaven-sailing staff").

Since 1961, 600 astronauts have flown in space.[4][needs update] Until 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military or by civilian space agencies. With the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: the commercial astronaut.

Definition

Alan Shepard aboard Freedom 7 (1961)

The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary, with some focus on the point where the atmosphere becomes so thin that centrifugal force, rather than aerodynamic force, carries a significant portion of the weight of the flight object. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed the Kármán line, at an altitude of 100 kilometers (62 mi).[5] In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 80 kilometres (50 mi)[6] are awarded astronaut wings.

As of 17 November 2016, 552 people from 36 countries have reached 100 km (62 mi) or more in altitude, of whom 549 reached low Earth orbit or beyond.[7] Of these, 24 people have traveled beyond low Earth orbit, either to lunar orbit, the lunar surface, or, in one case, a loop around the Moon.[note 1] Three of the 24—Jim Lovell, John Young and Eugene Cernan—did so twice.[8]

As of 17 November 2016, under the U.S. definition, 558 people qualify as having reached space, above 50 miles (80 km) altitude. Of eight X-15 pilots who exceeded 50 miles (80 km) in altitude, only one, Joseph A. Walker, exceeded 100 kilometers (about 62.1 miles) and he did it two times, becoming the first person in space twice.[7] Space travelers have spent over 41,790 man-days (114.5-man-years) in space, including over 100 astronaut-days of spacewalks.[9][10] As of 2024, the man with the longest cumulative time in space is Oleg Kononenko, who has spent over 1100 days in space.[11] Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman, at 675 days.[12]

Terminology

See also: Astronaut ranks and positions

In 1959, when both the United States and Soviet Union were planning, but had yet to launch humans into space, NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan and his Deputy Administrator, Hugh Dryden, discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be called astronauts or cosmonauts. Dryden preferred "cosmonaut", on the grounds that flights would occur in and to the broader cosmos, while the "astro" prefix suggested flight specifically to the stars.[13] Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred "astronaut", which survived by common usage as the preferred American term.[14] When the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, they chose a term which anglicizes to "cosmonaut".[15][16]

Astronaut

The first sixteen NASA astronauts to be selected, February 1963. Back row: White, McDivitt, Young, See, Conrad, Borman, Armstrong, Stafford, Lovell. Front row: Cooper, Grissom, Carpenter, Schirra, Glenn, Shepard, Slayton.

A professional space traveler is called an astronaut.[17] The first known use of the term "astronaut" in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his 1930 short story "The Death's Head Meteor". The word itself had been known earlier; for example, in Percy Greg's 1880 book Across the Zodiac, "astronaut" referred to a spacecraft. In Les Navigateurs de l'infini (1925) by J.-H. Rosny aîné, the word astronautique (astronautics) was used. The word may have been inspired by "aeronaut", an older term for an air traveler first applied in 1784 to balloonists. An early use of "astronaut" in a non-fiction publication is Eric Frank Russell's poem "The Astronaut", appearing in the November 1934 Bulletin of the British Interplanetary Society.[18]

The first known formal use of the term astronautics in the scientific community was the establishment of the annual International Astronautical Congress in 1950, and the subsequent founding of the International Astronautical Federation the following year.[19]

NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond. NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps.[20] The European Space Agency similarly uses the term astronaut for members of its Astronaut Corps.[21]

Cosmonaut

The first eleven Soviet cosmonauts to fly, July 1965. Back row, left to right: Leonov, Titov, Bykovsky, Yegorov, Popovich; front row: Komarov, Gagarin, Tereshkova, Nikolayev, Feoktistov, Belyayev.
Main article: Soviet space program
For a more comprehensive list, see List of cosmonauts.

By convention, an astronaut employed by the Russian Federal Space Agency (or its predecessor, the Soviet space program) is called a cosmonaut in English texts.[20] The word is an Anglicization of kosmonavt (Russian: космонавт Russian pronunciation: [kəsmɐˈnaft]).[22] Other countries of the former Eastern Bloc use variations of the Russian kosmonavt, such as the Polish: kosmonauta (although Poles also used astronauta, and the two words are considered synonyms).[23]

Coinage of the term космонавт has been credited to Soviet aeronautics (or "cosmonautics") pioneer Mikhail Tikhonravov (1900–1974).[15][16] The first cosmonaut was Soviet Air Force pilot Yuri Gagarin, also the first person in space. He was part of the first six Soviet citizens, with German Titov, Yevgeny Khrunov, Andriyan Nikolayev, Pavel Popovich, and Grigoriy Nelyubov, who were given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in January 1961.[24] Valentina Tereshkova was the first female cosmonaut and the first and youngest woman to have flown in space with a solo mission on the Vostok 6 in 1963.[25] On 14 March 1995,[26] Norman Thagard became the first American to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle, and thus became the first "American cosmonaut".[27][28]

Taikonaut

The first Chinese taikonauts on a 2010 Somalia stamp
Main articles: People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps and China Manned Space Program
For a more comprehensive list, see List of Chinese astronauts.

In Chinese, the term Yǔ háng yuán (宇航员, "cosmos navigating personnel") is used for astronauts and cosmonauts in general,[29][30] while hángtiān yuán (航天员, "navigating celestial-heaven personnel") is used for Chinese astronauts. Here, hángtiān (航天, literally "heaven-navigating", or spaceflight) is strictly[31] defined as the navigation of outer space within the local star system, i.e. Solar System. The phrase tàikōng rén (太空人, "spaceman") is often used in Hong Kong and Taiwan.[32]

The term taikonaut is used by some English-language news media organizations for professional space travelers from China.[33] The word has featured in the Longman and Oxford English dictionaries, and the term became more common in 2003 when China sent its first astronaut Yang Liwei into space aboard the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft.[34] This is the term used by Xinhua News Agency in the English version of the Chinese People's Daily since the advent of the Chinese space program.[35] The origin of the term is unclear; as early as May 1998, Chiew Lee Yih (趙裡昱) from Malaysia used it in newsgroups.[36][37][non-primary source needed]

Parastronaut

For its 2022 Astronaut Group, the European Space Agency envisioned recruiting an astronaut with a physical disability, a category they called "parastronauts", with the intention but not guarantee of spaceflight.[38] The categories of disability considered for the program were individuals with lower limb deficiency (either through amputation or congenital), leg length difference, or a short stature (less than 130 centimetres or 4 feet 3 inches).[39] On 23 November 2022, John McFall was selected to be the first ESA parastronaut.[40]

Other terms

With the rise of space tourism, NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency agreed to use the term "spaceflight participant" to distinguish those space travelers from professional astronauts on missions coordinated by those two agencies.

Finnish American astronaut Timothy Kopra

While no nation other than Russia (and previously the Soviet Union), the United States, and China have launched a crewed spacecraft, several other nations have sent people into space in cooperation with one of these countries, e.g. the Soviet-led Interkosmos program. Inspired partly by these missions, other synonyms for astronaut have entered occasional English usage. For example, the term spationaut (French: spationaute) is sometimes used to describe French space travelers, from the Latin word spatium for "space"; the Malay term angkasawan (deriving from angkasa meaning 'space') was used to describe participants in the Angkasawan program (note its similarity with the Indonesian term antariksawan). Plans of the Indian Space Research Organisation to launch its crewed Gaganyaan spacecraft have spurred at times public discussion if another term than astronaut should be used for the crew members, suggesting vyomanaut (from the Sanskrit word vyoman meaning 'sky' or 'space') or gagannaut (from the Sanskrit word gagan for 'sky').[41][42] In Finland, the NASA astronaut Timothy Kopra, a Finnish American, has sometimes been referred to as sisunautti, from the Finnish word sisu.[43] Across Germanic languages, the word for "astronaut" typically translates to "space traveler", as it does with German's Raumfahrer, Dutch's ruimtevaarder, Swedish's rymdfarare, and Norwegian's romfarer.

As of 2021 in the United States, astronaut status is conferred on a person depending on the authorizing agency:

  • one who flies in a vehicle above 50 miles (80 km) for NASA or the military is considered an astronaut (with no qualifier)
  • one who flies in a vehicle to the International Space Station in a mission coordinated by NASA and Roscosmos is a spaceflight participant
  • one who flies above 50 miles (80 km) in a non-NASA vehicle as a crewmember and demonstrates activities during flight that are essential to public safety, or contribute to human space flight safety, is considered a commercial astronaut by the Federal Aviation Administration[44]
  • one who flies to the International Space Station as part of a "privately funded, dedicated commercial spaceflight on a commercial launch vehicle dedicated to the mission ... to conduct approved commercial and marketing activities on the space station (or in a commercial segment attached to the station)" is considered a private astronaut by NASA[45] (as of 2020, nobody has yet qualified for this status)
  • a generally-accepted but unofficial term for a paying non-crew passenger who flies a private non-NASA or military vehicles above 50 miles (80 km) is a space tourist (as of 2020[needs update], nobody has yet qualified for this status)

On July 20, 2021, the FAA issued an order redefining the eligibility criteria to be an astronaut in response to the private suborbital spaceflights of Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson.[46][47] The new criteria states that one must have "[d]emonstrated activities during flight that were essential to public safety, or contributed to human space flight safety" to qualify as an astronaut. This new definition excludes Bezos and Branson.

Space travel milestones

See also: Spaceflight records and Timeline of space travel by nationality
Yuri Gagarin, first human in space (1961)
Valentina Tereshkova, first woman in space (1963)
Neil Armstrong, first human to walk on the Moon (1969)
Vladimír Remek, a Czechoslovak who became the first non-American and non-Soviet cosmonaut in space (1978)
Yang Liwei, first person sent into space by China (2003)
Map of countries whose citizens have flown in space

The first human in space was Soviet Yuri Gagarin, who was launched on 12 April 1961, aboard Vostok 1 and orbited around the Earth for 108 minutes. The first woman in space was Soviet Valentina Tereshkova, who launched on 16 June 1963, aboard Vostok 6 and orbited Earth for almost three days.

Alan Shepard became the first American and second person in space on 5 May 1961, on a 15-minute sub-orbital flight aboard Freedom 7. The first American to orbit the Earth was John Glenn, aboard Friendship 7 on 20 February 1962. The first American woman in space was Sally Ride, during Space Shuttle Challenger's mission STS-7, on 18 June 1983.[48] In 1992, Mae Jemison became the first African American woman to travel in space aboard STS-47.

Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov was the first person to conduct an extravehicular activity (EVA), (commonly called a "spacewalk"), on 18 March 1965, on the Soviet Union's Voskhod 2 mission. This was followed two and a half months later by astronaut Ed White who made the first American EVA on NASA's Gemini 4 mission.[49]

The first crewed mission to orbit the Moon, Apollo 8, included American William Anders who was born in Hong Kong, making him the first Asian-born astronaut in 1968.

The Soviet Union, through its Intercosmos program, allowed people from other "socialist" (i.e. Warsaw Pact and other Soviet-allied) countries to fly on its missions, with the notable exceptions of France and Austria participating in Soyuz TM-7 and Soyuz TM-13, respectively. An example is Czechoslovak Vladimír Remek, the first cosmonaut from a country other than the Soviet Union or the United States, who flew to space in 1978 on a Soyuz-U rocket.[50] Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian citizen to travel to space. He was launched aboard Soyuz T-11, on 2 April 1984.

On 23 July 1980, Pham Tuan of Vietnam became the first Asian in space when he flew aboard Soyuz 37.[51] Also in 1980, Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez became the first person of Hispanic and black African descent to fly in space, and in 1983, Guion Bluford became the first African American to fly into space. In April 1985, Taylor Wang became the first ethnic Chinese person in space.[52][53] The first person born in Africa to fly in space was Patrick Baudry (France), in 1985.[54][55] In 1985, Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud became the first Arab Muslim astronaut in space.[56] In 1988, Abdul Ahad Mohmand became the first Afghan to reach space, spending nine days aboard the Mir space station.[57]

With the increase of seats on the Space Shuttle, the U.S. began taking international astronauts. In 1983, Ulf Merbold of West Germany became the first non-US citizen to fly in a US spacecraft. In 1984, Marc Garneau became the first of eight Canadian astronauts to fly in space (through 2010).[58] In 1985, Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican-born person in space.[59] In 1991, Helen Sharman became the first Briton to fly in space.[60] In 2002, Mark Shuttleworth became the first citizen of an African country to fly in space, as a paying spaceflight participant.[61] In 2003, Ilan Ramon became the first Israeli to fly in space, although he died during a re-entry accident.

On 15 October 2003, Yang Liwei became China's first astronaut on the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft.

On 30 May 2020, Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken became the first astronauts to launch to orbit on a private crewed spacecraft, Crew Dragon.

Age milestones

The youngest person to reach space is Oliver Daemen, who was 18 years and 11 months old when he made a suborbital spaceflight on Blue Origin NS-16.[62] Daemen, who was a commercial passenger aboard the New Shepard, broke the record of Soviet cosmonaut Gherman Titov, who was 25 years old when he flew Vostok 2. Titov remains the youngest human to reach orbit; he rounded the planet 17 times. Titov was also the first person to suffer space sickness and the first person to sleep in space, twice.[63][64] The oldest person to reach space is William Shatner, who was 90 years old when he made a suborbital spaceflight on Blue Origin NS-18.[65] The oldest person to reach orbit is John Glenn, one of the Mercury 7, who was 77 when he flew on STS-95.[66]

Duration and distance milestones

The longest time spent in space was by Russian Valeri Polyakov, who spent 438 days there.[9] As of 2006, the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is seven, a record held by both Jerry L. Ross and Franklin Chang-Diaz. The farthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was 401,056 km (249,205 mi), when Jim Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise went around the Moon during the Apollo 13 emergency.[9]

Civilian and non-government milestones

The first civilian in space was Valentina Tereshkova[67] aboard Vostok 6 (she also became the first woman in space on that mission). Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force, which did not accept female pilots at that time. A month later, Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian in space when his X-15 Flight 90 crossed the 100 kilometers (54 nautical miles) line, qualifying him by the international definition of spaceflight.[68][69] Walker had joined the US Army Air Force but was not a member during his flight. The first people in space who had never been a member of any country's armed forces were both Konstantin Feoktistov and Boris Yegorov aboard Voskhod 1.

The first non-governmental space traveler was Byron K. Lichtenberg, a researcher from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology who flew on STS-9 in 1983.[70] In December 1990, Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler and the first journalist in space for Tokyo Broadcasting System, a visit to Mir as part of an estimated $12 million (USD) deal with a Japanese TV station, although at the time, the term used to refer to Akiyama was "Research Cosmonaut".[71][72][73] Akiyama suffered severe space sickness during his mission, which affected his productivity.[72]

The first self-funded space tourist was Dennis Tito on board the Russian spacecraft Soyuz TM-3 on 28 April 2001.

Self-funded travelers

Further information: Space tourism

The first person to fly on an entirely privately funded mission was Mike Melvill, piloting SpaceShipOne flight 15P on a suborbital journey, although he was a test pilot employed by Scaled Composites and not an actual paying space tourist.[74][75] Jared Isaacman was the first person to self-fund a mission to orbit, commanding Inspiration4 in 2021.[76] Nine others have paid Space Adventures to fly to the International Space Station:

  1. Dennis Tito (American): 28 April – 6 May 2001
  2. Mark Shuttleworth (South African): 25 April – 5 May 2002
  3. Gregory Olsen (American): 1–11 October 2005
  4. Anousheh Ansari (Iranian / American): 18–29 September 2006
  5. Charles Simonyi (Hungarian / American): 7–21 April 2007, 26 March – 8 April 2009
  6. Richard Garriott (British / American): 12–24 October 2008
  7. Guy Laliberté (Canadian): 30 September 2009 – 11 October 2009
  8. Yusaku Maezawa and Yozo Hirano (both Japanese): 8 – 24 December 2021

Training

Elliot See during water egress training with NASA (1965)
Main article: Astronaut training
See also: Astronaut ranks and positions

The first NASA astronauts were selected for training in 1959.[77] Early in the space program, military jet test piloting and engineering training were often cited as prerequisites for selection as an astronaut at NASA, although neither John Glenn nor Scott Carpenter (of the Mercury Seven) had any university degree, in engineering or any other discipline at the time of their selection. Selection was initially limited to military pilots.[78][79] The earliest astronauts for both the US and the USSR tended to be jet fighter pilots, and were often test pilots.

Once selected, NASA astronauts go through twenty months of training in a variety of areas, including training for extravehicular activity in a facility such as NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory.[1][78] Astronauts-in-training (astronaut candidates) may also experience short periods of weightlessness (microgravity) in an aircraft called the "Vomit Comet," the nickname given to a pair of modified KC-135s (retired in 2000 and 2004, respectively, and replaced in 2005 with a C-9) which perform parabolic flights.[77] Astronauts are also required to accumulate a number of flight hours in high-performance jet aircraft. This is mostly done in T-38 jet aircraft out of Ellington Field, due to its proximity to the Johnson Space Center. Ellington Field is also where the Shuttle Training Aircraft is maintained and developed, although most flights of the aircraft are conducted from Edwards Air Force Base.

Astronauts in training must learn how to control and fly the Space Shuttle; further, it is vital that they are familiar with the International Space Station so they know what they must do when they get there.[80]

NASA candidacy requirements

Unless otherwise noted, the following data are incorporated from the Astronaut Requirements article by NASA
  • The candidate must be a citizen of the United States.
  • The candidate must complete a master's degree in a STEM field, including engineering, biological science, physical science, computer science or mathematics.
  • The candidate must have at least two years of related professional experience obtained after degree completion or at least 1,000 hours pilot-in-command time on jet aircraft.
  • The candidate must be able to pass the NASA long-duration flight astronaut physical.
  • The candidate must also have skills in leadership, teamwork and communications.

The master's degree requirement can also be met by:

  • Two years of work toward a doctoral program in a related science, technology, engineering or math field.
  • A completed Doctor of Medicine or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree.
  • Completion of a nationally recognized test pilot school program.

Mission Specialist Educator

Main article: Educator Astronaut Project
  • Applicants must have a bachelor's degree with teaching experience, including work at the kindergarten through twelfth grade level. An advanced degree, such as a master's degree or a doctoral degree, is not required, but is strongly desired.[81]

Mission Specialist Educators, or "Educator Astronauts", were first selected in 2004; as of 2007, there are three NASA Educator astronauts: Joseph M. Acaba, Richard R. Arnold, and Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger.[82][83] Barbara Morgan, selected as back-up teacher to Christa McAuliffe in 1985, is considered to be the first Educator astronaut by the media, but she trained as a mission specialist.[84] The Educator Astronaut program is a successor to the Teacher in Space program from the 1980s.[85][86]

Health risks of space travel

See also: Effect of spaceflight on the human body and Space medicine
Gennady Padalka performing ultrasound on Michael Fincke during ISS Expedition 9

Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including decompression sickness, barotrauma, immunodeficiencies, loss of bone and muscle, loss of eyesight, orthostatic intolerance, sleep disturbances, and radiation injury.[87][88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96] A variety of large scale medical studies are being conducted in space via the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI) to address these issues. Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity Study in which astronauts (including former ISS commanders Leroy Chiao and Gennady Padalka) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare.[97][98][99]

A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that Salmonella typhimurium, a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space.[100] More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space.[101] Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space.[102][103]

On 31 December 2012, a NASA-supported study reported that human spaceflight may harm the brain and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease.[104][105][106]

In October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to space exploration, including a human mission to Mars.[107][108]

Over the last decade, flight surgeons and scientists at NASA have seen a pattern of vision problems in astronauts on long-duration space missions. The syndrome, known as visual impairment intracranial pressure (VIIP), has been reported in nearly two-thirds of space explorers after long periods spent aboard the International Space Station (ISS).[109]

On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken trips in space, based on MRI studies. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.[110][111]

Being in space can be physiologically deconditioning on the body. It can affect the otolith organs and adaptive capabilities of the central nervous system. Zero gravity and cosmic rays can cause many implications for astronauts.[112]

In October 2018, NASA-funded researchers found that lengthy journeys into outer space, including travel to the planet Mars, may substantially damage the gastrointestinal tissues of astronauts. The studies support earlier work that found such journeys could significantly damage the brains of astronauts, and age them prematurely.[113]

Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the International Space Station (ISS) of five Enterobacter bugandensis bacterial strains, none pathogenic to humans, that microorganisms on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts.[114][115]

A study by Russian scientists published in April 2019 stated that astronauts facing space radiation could face temporary hindrance of their memory centers. While this does not affect their intellectual capabilities, it temporarily hinders formation of new cells in brain's memory centers. The study conducted by Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT) concluded this after they observed that mice exposed to neutron and gamma radiation did not impact the rodents' intellectual capabilities.[116]

A 2020 study conducted on the brains of eight male Russian cosmonauts after they returned from long stays aboard the International Space Station showed that long-duration spaceflight causes many physiological adaptions, including macro- and microstructural changes. While scientists still know little about the effects of spaceflight on brain structure, this study showed that space travel can lead to new motor skills (dexterity), but also slightly weaker vision, both of which could possibly be long lasting. It was the first study to provide clear evidence of sensorimotor neuroplasticity, which is the brain's ability to change through growth and reorganization.[117][118]

Food and drink

Main article: Space food
Astronauts making and eating hamburgers on board the ISS, 2002[119]

An astronaut on the International Space Station requires about 830 g (29 oz) mass of food per meal each day (inclusive of about 120 g or 4.2 oz packaging mass per meal).

Space Shuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to select menus that appealed to their individual tastes. Five months before flight, menus were selected and analyzed for nutritional content by the shuttle dietician. Foods are tested to see how they will react in a reduced gravity environment. Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula. On Earth, the average American uses about 35 US gallons (130 L) of water every day. On board the ISS astronauts limit water use to only about three US gallons (11 L) per day.[120]

Insignia

NASA Astronaut lapel pin

In Russia, cosmonauts are awarded Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation upon completion of their missions, often accompanied with the award of Hero of the Russian Federation. This follows the practice established in the USSR where cosmonauts were usually awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union.

At NASA, those who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silver lapel pin. Once they have flown in space, they receive a gold pin. U.S. astronauts who also have active-duty military status receive a special qualification badge, known as the Astronaut Badge, after participation on a spaceflight. The United States Air Force also presents an Astronaut Badge to its pilots who exceed 50 miles (80 km) in altitude.

Deaths

For a more comprehensive list, see List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents § Astronaut fatalities.
Space Mirror Memorial

As of 2020, eighteen astronauts (fourteen men and four women) have died during four space flights. By nationality, thirteen were American, four were Russian (Soviet Union), and one was Israeli.

As of 2020, eleven people (all men) have died training for spaceflight: eight Americans and three Russians. Six of these were in crashes of training jet aircraft, one drowned during water recovery training, and four were due to fires in pure oxygen environments.

Astronaut David Scott left a memorial consisting of a statuette titled Fallen Astronaut on the surface of the Moon during his 1971 Apollo 15 mission, along with a list of the names of eight of the astronauts and six cosmonauts known at the time to have died in service.[121]

The Space Mirror Memorial, which stands on the grounds of the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, is maintained by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and commemorates the lives of the men and women who have died during spaceflight and during training in the space programs of the United States. In addition to twenty NASA career astronauts, the memorial includes the names of an X-15 test pilot, a U.S. Air Force officer who died while training for a then-classified military space program, and a civilian spaceflight participant.

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ Apollo 13 had to abort an intended lunar landing, and looped around the Moon to return its three astronauts to Earth.

References

  1. ^ a b NASA (2006). "Astronaut Fact Book" (PDF). National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 October 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  2. ^ MacKay, Marie (2005). "Former astronaut visits USU". The Utah Statesman. Archived from the original on 26 September 2008. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  3. ^ "astronaut - Dictionary Definition : Vocabulary.com". vocabulary.com. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
  4. ^ "SpaceX's Crew-3 Launched the 600th Person to Space in 60 Years". 11 November 2021. Archived from the original on 11 March 2022. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  5. ^ "FAI Sporting Code, Section 8, Paragraph 2.18.1" (PDF). 22 May 2012. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
  6. ^ Whelan, Mary (5 June 2013). "X-15 Space Pioneers Now Honored as Astronauts".
  7. ^ a b "Astronaut/Cosmonaut Statistics". www.worldspaceflight.com. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
  8. ^ NASA. "NASA's First 100 Human Space Flights". NASA. Archived from the original on 27 August 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  9. ^ a b c Encyclopedia Astronautica (2007). "Astronaut Statistics – as of 14 November 2008". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  10. ^ NASA (2004). "Walking in the Void". NASA. Archived from the original on 6 January 2008. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  11. ^ Kekatos, Mary; Sunseri, Gina (5 June 2024). "Russian cosmonaut becomes 1st person to spend 1,000 cumulative days in space". abc News. Archived from the original on 8 August 2024. Retrieved 13 September 2024.
  12. ^ NASA. "Peggy A. Whitson (PhD)". Biographical Data. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
  13. ^ Paul Dickson (2009). A Dictionary of the Space Age. JHU Press. p. 27. ISBN 9780801895043.
  14. ^ Dethloff, Henry C. (1993). "Chapter 2: The Commitment to Space". Suddenly Tomorrow Came... A History of the Johnson Space Center. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-1502753588.
  15. ^ a b Brzezinski, Matthew (2007). Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries That Ignited the Space Age. New York: Henry Holt & Co. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-8050-8147-3.
  16. ^ a b Gruntman, Mike (2004). Blazing the Trail: The Early History of Spacecraft and Rocketry. Reston, VA: AIAA. p. 326. ISBN 9781563477058.
  17. ^ "TheSpaceRace.com – Glossary of Space Exploration Terminology". Archived from the original on 5 January 2008. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
  18. ^ Ingham, John L.: Into Your Tent, Plantech (2010): page 82.
  19. ^ IAF (16 August 2010). "IAF History". International Astronautical Federation. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 16 August 2010.
  20. ^ a b Dismukes, Kim – NASA Biography Page Curator (15 December 2005). "Astronaut Biographies". Johnson Space Center, NASA. Archived from the original on 7 March 2007. Retrieved 6 March 2007.
  21. ^ ESA (10 April 2008). "The European Astronaut Corps". ESA. Archived from the original on 20 December 2008. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
  22. ^ Kotlyakov, Vladimir; Komarova, Anna (2006). Elsevier's Dictionary of Geography: in English, Russian, French, Spanish and German. Elsevier. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-08-048878-3.
  23. ^ Katarzyna Kłosińska, University of Warsaw (16 December 2016). "Astronauta a kosmonauta". PWN. Retrieved 6 April 2019.
  24. ^ Hall, Rex D.; David, Shayler; Vis, Bert (5 October 2007). Russia's Cosmonauts: Inside the Yuri Gagarin Training Center. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9780387739755.
  25. ^ Knapton, Sarah (17 September 2015). "Russia forgot to send toothbrush with first woman in space". Daily Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 16 June 2019.
  26. ^ McDonald, Sue (December 1998). Mir Mission Chronicle: November 1994 – August 1996 (PDF). NASA. pp. 52–53. NASA/TP-98-207890. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 July 2019. Retrieved 16 June 2019.
  27. ^ "Illustrious alumnus: Former astronaut Thagard recounts thrills of spaceflight". www.utsouthwestern.edu. Utsouthwestern.edu. 4 October 2017. Archived from the original on 18 August 2019. Retrieved 18 August 2019.
  28. ^ "Astronaut-Physician Counting Down to Blastoff Aboard Russian Craft : Shuttle: Dr. Norman Thagard will become the first American to leave the Earth aboard a Soyuz rocket. Mission will take them to the Mir space station". Los Angeles Times. 22 January 1995.
  29. ^ "Ян Ливэй – первый китайский космонавт, совершивший первый в Китае пилотируемый космический полет" [Yang Liwei, the first Chinese astronaut who has made China's first manned space flight]. fmprc.gov.cn (in Russian). 13 October 2005. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  30. ^ "Chinese embassy in Russia press-release". ru.china-embassy.org (in Russian). Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  31. ^ "The Axiom-1 crew launches today—are these guys tourists, astronauts, or what? – Ars Technica OpenForum". arstechnica.com. 8 April 2022. Retrieved 17 June 2022.
  32. ^ "太空人 : astronaut... : tài kōng rén | Definition | Mandarin Chinese Pinyin English Dictionary | Yabla Chinese". chinese.yabla.com.
  33. ^ "Chinese taikonaut dismisses environment worries about new space launch center". China View. 26 January 2008. Archived from the original on 3 October 2008. Retrieved 25 September 2008.
  34. ^ ""Taikonauts" a sign of China's growing global influence". China View. 25 September 2008. Archived from the original on 28 September 2008. Retrieved 25 September 2008.
  35. ^ Xinhua (2008). "Chinese taikonaut debuts spacewalk". People's Daily Online. Archived from the original on 30 September 2008. Retrieved 28 September 2008.
  36. ^ Chiew, Lee Yih (19 May 1998). "Google search of "taikonaut" sort by date". Usenet posting. Chiew Lee Yih. Retrieved 27 September 2008.
  37. ^ Chiew, Lee Yih (10 March 1996). "Chiew Lee Yih misspelled "taikonaut" 2 years before it first appear". Usenet posting. Chiew Lee Yih. Retrieved 27 September 2008.
  38. ^ "Parastronaut feasibility project". ESA. Retrieved 18 February 2021.
  39. ^ Parsonson, Andrew (16 February 2021). "'Parastronaut' sought as ESA recruits its first new astronauts in more than a decade". SpaceNews. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
  40. ^ Amos, Jonathan (23 November 2022). "Disabled man joins European Space Agency's astronaut programme". BBC News. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
  41. ^ Ananthaswamy, Anil (5 January 2010). "Wanted: four 'vyomanauts' for Indian spaceflight". New Scientist. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
  42. ^ Mukunth, Vasudevan (23 August 2018). "Infinite in All Directions: A Science Workshop and Why Vyomanaut Is Not Cool". The Wire. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
  43. ^ MTV Uutiset (1 November 2009). ""Sisunautti" haaveilee uudesta Suomen-matkasta". MTV3. Archived from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 10 April 2018.
  44. ^ "Commercial Astronaut Wings Program". United States Department of Transportation. Office of Commercial Space Transportation. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
  45. ^ Elburn, Darcy (29 May 2019). "Private Astronaut Missions". nasa.gov. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on 14 June 2020. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
  46. ^ "FAA Order 8800.2" (PDF). Federal Aviation Administration. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2021.
  47. ^ Rivera, Josh (25 July 2021). "Sorry, Jeff Bezos, you're still not an astronaut, according to the FAA". USA Today. Retrieved 30 July 2021.
  48. ^ NASA (2006). "Sally K. Ride, PhD Biography". NASA. Archived from the original on 16 October 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  49. ^ "Educator Features: Going Out for a Walk". NASA. Retrieved 27 November 2015.
  50. ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica (2007). "Vladimir Remek Czech Pilot Cosmonaut". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  51. ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica (2007). "Salyut 6 EP-7". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  52. ^ NASA (1985). "Taylor G. Wang Biography". NASA. Archived from the original on 19 September 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  53. ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica (2007). "Taylor Wang". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 27 August 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  54. ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica (2007). "Tamayo-Mendez". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  55. ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica (2007). "Baudry". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  56. ^ NASA (2006). "Sultan Bin Salman Al-Saud Biography". NASA. Archived from the original on 25 May 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
  57. ^ Joachim Wilhelm Josef Becker and Heinz Hermann Janssen (2007). "Biographies of International Astronauts". Space Facts. Archived from the original on 12 August 2007. Retrieved 11 August 2007.
  58. ^ media, Government of Canada, Canadian Space Agency, Directions of communications, Information services and new (4 September 2014). "Space Missions".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  59. ^ NASA (1985). "Rodolfo Neri Vela (PhD) Biography". NASA. Archived from the original on 27 October 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  60. ^ BBC News (18 May 1991). "1991: Sharman becomes first Briton in space". BBC News. Archived from the original on 5 September 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  61. ^ africaninspace.com (2002). "First African in Space". HBD. Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  62. ^ "Blue Origin's Bezos reaches space on 1st passenger flight". Arkansas Online. 20 July 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
  63. ^ BBC News (6 August 2007). "1961: Russian cosmonaut spends day in space". BBC News. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  64. ^ Robyn Dixon (22 September 2000). "Obituaries—Gherman S. Titov; Cosmonaut Was Second Man to Orbit Earth". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 4 February 2015.
  65. ^ "William Shatner oldest astronaut at 90 – Here's how space tourism could affect older people". Space.com. 19 October 2021.
  66. ^ "John Herschel Glenn, Jr. (Colonel, USMC, Ret.) NASA Astronaut". NASA. 2007. Archived from the original on 14 October 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  67. ^ "Valentina Vladimirovna TERESHKOVA". Archived from the original on 23 April 2011.
  68. ^ "Puzzle: Civilians in Space (Fourmilog: None Dare Call It Reason)". www.fourmilab.ch.
  69. ^ "Higher & Faster: Memorial Fund Established for X-15 pilot Joseph A. Walker". Space.com. 27 November 2006.
  70. ^ NASA (2002). "Byron K. Lichtenberg Biography". NASA. Archived from the original on 19 September 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  71. ^ Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum (2007). "Paying for a Ride". Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Archived from the original on 26 October 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  72. ^ a b BBC News (1990). "Mir Space Station 1986–2001". BBC News. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  73. ^ Spacefacts (1990). "Akiyama". Spacefacts. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  74. ^ Leonard David (2004). "Pilot Announced on Eve of Private Space Mission". Space.com. Archived from the original on 13 February 2006. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  75. ^ Royce Carlton Inc (2007). "Michael Melvill, First Civilian Astronaut, SpaceShipOne". Royce Carlton Inc. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  76. ^ Overbye, Dennis (21 September 2021). "What a Fungus Reveals About the Space Program". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
  77. ^ a b NASA (2006). "Astronaut Candidate Training". NASA. Archived from the original on 19 August 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  78. ^ a b NASA (1995). "Selection and Training of Astronauts". NASA. Archived from the original on 15 February 1997. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  79. ^ Nolen, Stephanie (2002). Promised The Moon: The Untold Story of the First Women in the Space Race. Toronto: Penguin Canada. p. 235. ISBN 978-0-14-301347-1.
  80. ^ "NASA – Astronauts in Training". www.nasa.gov. Denise Miller: MSFC. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 3 April 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  81. ^ NASA (2007). "NASA Opens Applications for New Astronaut Class". NASA. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  82. ^ NASA (2004). "'Next Generation of Explorers' Named". NASA. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  83. ^ NASA (2004). "NASA's New Astronauts Meet The Press". NASA. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  84. ^ NASA (2007). "Barbara Radding Morgan – NASA Astronaut biography". NASA. Archived from the original on 2 October 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  85. ^ Tariq Malik (2007). "NASA Assures That Teachers Will Fly in Space". Space.com. Archived from the original on 25 November 2006. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  86. ^ NASA (2005). "Educator Astronaut Program". NASA. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  87. ^ Chang, Kenneth (27 January 2014). "Beings Not Made for Space". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  88. ^ Mann, Adam (23 July 2012). "Blindness, Bone Loss, and Space Farts: Astronaut Medical Oddities". Wired. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  89. ^ Mader, T. H.; et al. (2011). "Optic Disc Edema, Globe Flattening, Choroidal Folds, and Hyperopic Shifts Observed in Astronauts after Long-duration Space Flight". Ophthalmology. 118 (10): 2058–2069. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021. PMID 21849212. S2CID 13965518. Archived from the original on 13 January 2013.
  90. ^ Puiu, Tibi (9 November 2011). "Astronauts' vision severely affected during long space missions". zmescience.com. Retrieved 9 February 2012.
  91. ^ "Male Astronauts Return With Eye Problems (video)". CNN News. 9 February 2012. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
  92. ^ Space Staff (13 March 2012). "Spaceflight Bad for Astronauts' Vision, Study Suggests". Space.com. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  93. ^ Kramer, Larry A.; et al. (13 March 2012). "Orbital and Intracranial Effects of Microgravity: Findings at 3-T MR Imaging". Radiology. 263 (3): 819–827. doi:10.1148/radiol.12111986. PMID 22416248. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  94. ^ "Soviet cosmonauts burnt their eyes in space for USSR's glory". Pravda.Ru. 17 December 2008. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
  95. ^ Fong, Kevin (12 February 2014). "The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on Your Body". Wired. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
  96. ^ Howell, Elizabeth (3 November 2017). "Brain Changes in Space Could Be Linked to Vision Problems in Astronauts". Seeker. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
  97. ^ "NASA – Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity". Archived from the original on 29 October 2009.
  98. ^ Rao, S.; van Holsbeeck, L.; Musial, J. L.; Parker, A.; Bouffard, J. A.; Bridge, P.; Jackson, M.; Dulchavsky, S. A. (2008). "A Pilot Study of Comprehensive Ultrasound Education at the Wayne State University School of Medicine". Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine. 27 (5): 745–749. doi:10.7863/jum.2008.27.5.745. PMID 18424650.
  99. ^ Evaluation of Shoulder Integrity in Space: First Report of Musculoskeletal US on the International Space Station: http://radiology.rsna.org/content/234/2/319.abstract
  100. ^ Caspermeyer, Joe (23 September 2007). "Space flight shown to alter ability of bacteria to cause disease". Arizona State University. Archived from the original on 14 September 2017. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  101. ^ Dvorsky, George (13 September 2017). "Alarming Study Indicates Why Certain Bacteria Are More Resistant to Drugs in Space". Gizmodo. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  102. ^ Dose, K.; Bieger-Dose, A.; Dillmann, R.; Gill, M.; Kerz, O.; Klein, A.; Meinert, H.; Nawroth, T.; Risi, S.; Stridde, C. (1995). "ERA-experiment "space biochemistry"" (PDF). Advances in Space Research. 16 (8): 119–129. Bibcode:1995AdSpR..16h.119D. doi:10.1016/0273-1177(95)00280-R. PMID 11542696. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.[permanent dead link‍]
  103. ^ Horneck G.; Eschweiler, U.; Reitz, G.; Wehner, J.; Willimek, R.; Strauch, K. (1995). "Biological responses to space: results of the experiment "Exobiological Unit" of ERA on EURECA I". Adv. Space Res. 16 (8): 105–18. Bibcode:1995AdSpR..16h.105H. doi:10.1016/0273-1177(95)00279-N. PMID 11542695.
  104. ^ Cherry, Jonathan D.; Frost, Jeffrey L.; Lemere, Cynthia A.; Williams, Jacqueline P.; Olschowka, John A.; O'Banion, M. Kerry; Liu, Bin (2012). Feinstein, Douglas L (ed.). "Galactic Cosmic Radiation Leads to Cognitive Impairment and Increased Aβ Plaque Accumulation in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease". PLoS ONE. 7 (12): e53275. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...753275C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0053275. PMC 3534034. PMID 23300905.
  105. ^ Staff (1 January 2013). "Study Shows that Space Travel is Harmful to the Brain and Could Accelerate Onset of Alzheimer's". SpaceRef. Archived from the original on 21 May 2020. Retrieved 7 January 2013.
  106. ^ Cowing, Keith (3 January 2013). "Important Research Results NASA Is Not Talking About (Update)". NASA Watch. Retrieved 7 January 2013.
  107. ^ Dunn, Marcia (29 October 2015). "Report: NASA needs better handle on health hazards for Mars". AP News. Retrieved 30 October 2015.
  108. ^ Staff (29 October 2015). "NASA's Efforts to Manage Health and Human Performance Risks for Space Exploration (IG-16-003)" (PDF). NASA. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
  109. ^ "Astronaut Vision Changes Offer Opportunity for More Research". NASA. 9 February 2012. Archived from the original on 20 August 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
  110. ^ Roberts, Donna R.; et al. (2 November 2017). "Effects of Spaceflight on Astronaut Brain Structure as Indicated on MRI". New England Journal of Medicine. 377 (18): 1746–1753. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1705129. PMID 29091569. S2CID 205102116.
  111. ^ Foley, Katherine Ellen (3 November 2017). "Astronauts who take long trips to space return with brains that have floated to the top of their skulls". Quartz. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
  112. ^ YOUNG, LAURENCE R. (1 May 1999). "Artificial Gravity Considerations for a Mars Exploration Mission". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 871 (1 OTOLITH FUNCT): 367–378. Bibcode:1999NYASA.871..367Y. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb09198.x. ISSN 1749-6632. PMID 10372085. S2CID 32639019.
  113. ^ Griffin, Andrew (2 October 2018). "Travelling to Mars and deep into space could kill astronauts by destroying their guts, finds Nasa-funded study – Previous work has shown that astronauts could age prematurely and have damaged brain tissue after long journeys". The Independent. Retrieved 2 October 2018.
  114. ^ BioMed Central (22 November 2018). "ISS microbes should be monitored to avoid threat to astronaut health". EurekAlert!. Retrieved 25 November 2018.
  115. ^ Singh, Nitin K.; et al. (23 November 2018). "Multi-drug resistant Enterobacter bugandensis species isolated from the International Space Station and comparative genomic analyses with human pathogenic strains". BMC Microbiology. 18 (1): 175. doi:10.1186/s12866-018-1325-2. PMC 6251167. PMID 30466389.
  116. ^ "Radiation can impact astronauts' memory temporarily: Here's all you need to know | Health Tips and News". www.timesnownews.com. 9 April 2019. Retrieved 10 April 2019.
  117. ^ Aria Bendix (4 September 2020). "Space travel can lead to new motor skills but impaired vision, according to a new study of cosmonaut brains". Business Insider.
  118. ^ Jillings, Steven; Van Ombergen, Angelique; Tomilovskaya, Elena; Rumshiskaya, Alena; Litvinova, Liudmila; Nosikova, Inna; Pechenkova, Ekaterina; Rukavishnikov, Ilya; Kozlovskaya, Inessa B.; Manko, Olga; Danilichev, Sergey; Sunaert, Stefan; Parizel, Paul M.; Sinitsyn, Valentin; Petrovichev, Victor; Laureys, Steven; Zu Eulenburg, Peter; Sijbers, Jan; Wuyts, Floris L.; Jeurissen, Ben (4 September 2020). "Macro- and microstructural changes in cosmonauts' brains after long-duration spaceflight". Science Advances. 6 (36): eaaz9488. Bibcode:2020SciA....6.9488J. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaz9488. PMC 7473746. PMID 32917625.
  119. ^ Nevills, Amiko. "NASA – Food in Space Gallery". www.nasa.gov. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  120. ^ "Human Needs: Sustaining Life During Exploration". www.nasa.gov.
  121. ^ "Sculpture, Fallen Astronaut". airandspace.si.edu. Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Archived from the original on 28 July 2014. Retrieved 17 July 2014.
Look up cosmonaut, spationaut, astronaut, or taikonaut in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Astronauts.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Astronaut&oldid=1260313105#Taikonaut"