Jump to content

Meat

Edit links
This is a good article. Click here for more information.
Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Meat (disambiguation).

A selection of uncooked red meat, pork and poultry, including beef, chicken, bacon and pork chops

Meat is animal tissue, often muscle, that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistory. The Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of animals, including chickens, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and cattle, starting around 11,000 years ago. Since then, selective breeding has enabled farmers to produce meat with the qualities desired by producers and consumers.

Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat. Its quality is affected by many factors, including the genetics and nutritional status of the animal involved. It is edible raw, but is normally eaten cooked, such as by stewing or roasting, or processed, such as by smoking or salting. Bacteria and fungi decompose and spoil unprocessed meat within hours or days.

The consumption of meat, especially red and processed meat, causes health effects including increased risks of cancer, coronary heart disease, and diabetes. Meat production is a major contributor to environmental issues including global warming, pollution, and biodiversity loss, at every scale from local to global.

Meat is important to economies and cultures around the world. Some people choose not to eat meat (vegetarians) for reasons such as ethics, environmental effects, health concerns, or religious dietary rules.

Etymology

The word meat comes from the Old English word mete, meaning food in general. In modern usage, meat primarily means skeletal muscle with its associated fat and connective tissue, but it can include offal, other edible organs such as liver and kidney.[1] The term is sometimes used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of mammalian species (pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) raised and prepared for human consumption, to the exclusion of fish, other seafood, insects, poultry, or other animals.[2][3]

History

Further information: History of agriculture

Domestication

Further information: Domestication

Paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the organized hunting of large animals such as bison and deer. Animals were domesticated in the Neolithic, enabling the systematic production of meat and the breeding of animals to improve meat production.[1]

Major animal domestications
Animal Centre of origin Purpose Date/years ago
Goat, sheep, pig, cow Near East, South Asia Food 11,000–10,000[4]
Chicken East Asia Cockfighting 7,000[5]
Horse Central Asia Draft, riding 5,500[6]

Intensive animal farming

Further information: Intensive animal farming

In the postwar period, governments gave farmers guaranteed prices to increase animal production. The effect was to raise output at the cost of increased inputs such as of animal feed and veterinary medicines, as well as of animal disease and environmental pollution.[7] In 1966, the United States, the United Kingdom and other industrialized nations, began factory farming of beef and dairy cattle and domestic pigs.[8] Intensive animal farming became globalized in the later years of the 20th century, replacing traditional stock rearing in countries around the world.[8] In 1990 intensive animal farming accounted for 30% of world meat production and by 2005, this had risen to 40%.[8]

Selective breeding

Modern agriculture employs techniques such as progeny testing to speed selective breeding, allowing the rapid acquisition of the qualities desired by meat producers.[9] For instance, in the wake of well-publicized health concerns associated with saturated fats in the 1980s, the fat content of United Kingdom beef, pork and lamb fell from 20–26 percent to 4–8 percent within a few decades, due to both selective breeding for leanness and changed methods of butchery.[9] Methods of genetic engineering that could improve the meat-producing qualities of animals are becoming available.[9]

Meat production continues to be shaped by the demands of customers. The trend towards selling meat in pre-packaged cuts has increased the demand for larger breeds of cattle, better suited to producing such cuts.[9] Animals not previously exploited for their meat are now being farmed, including mammals such as antelope, zebra, water buffalo and camel,[9] as well as non-mammals, such as crocodile, emu and ostrich.[9] Organic farming supports an increasing demand for meat produced to that standard.[10]

  • A shoulder of lamb
    A shoulder of lamb
  • A Hereford bull, a breed of beef cattle
    A Hereford bull, a breed of beef cattle
  • Supermarket meat, North America
    Supermarket meat, North America

Animal growth and development

Several factors affect the growth and development of meat.

Genetics

Trait Heritability[11]
Reproductive efficiency 2–10%
Meat quality 15–30%
Growth 20–40%
Muscle/fat ratio 40–60%

Some economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some degree, and can thus be selected for by animal breeding. In cattle, certain growth features are controlled by recessive genes which have not so far been controlled, complicating breeding.[11] One such trait is dwarfism; another is the doppelender or "double muscling" condition, which causes muscle hypertrophy and thereby increases the animal's commercial value.[11] Genetic analysis continues to reveal the genetic mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the endocrine system and, through it, meat growth and quality.[11]

Genetic engineering techniques can shorten breeding programs significantly because they allow for the identification and isolation of genes coding for desired traits, and for the reincorporation of these genes into the animal genome.[11] To enable such manipulation, the genomes of many animals are being mapped.[11] Some research has already seen commercial application. For instance, a recombinant bacterium has been developed which improves the digestion of grass in the rumen of cattle, and some specific features of muscle fibers have been genetically altered.[11] Experimental reproductive cloning of commercially important meat animals such as sheep, pig or cattle has been successful. Multiple asexual reproduction of animals bearing desirable traits is anticipated.[11]

Environment

Heat regulation in livestock is of economic significance, as mammals attempt to maintain a constant optimal body temperature. Low temperatures tend to prolong animal development and high temperatures tend to delay it. Depending on their size, body shape and insulation through tissue and fur, some animals have a relatively narrow zone of temperature tolerance and others (e.g. cattle) a broad one. Static magnetic fields, for reasons still unknown, retard animal development.[12]

Animal nutrition

The quality and quantity of usable meat depends on the animal's plane of nutrition, i.e., whether it is over- or underfed. Scientists disagree about how exactly the plane of nutrition influences carcase composition.[13]

The composition of the diet, especially the amount of protein provided, is an important factor regulating animal growth. Ruminants, which may digest cellulose, are better adapted to poor-quality diets, but their ruminal microorganisms degrade high-quality protein if supplied in excess. Because producing high-quality protein animal feed is expensive, several techniques are employed or experimented with to ensure maximum utilization of protein. These include the treatment of feed with formalin to protect amino acids during their passage through the rumen, the recycling of manure by feeding it back to cattle mixed with feed concentrates, or the conversion of petroleum hydrocarbons to protein through microbial action.[13]

In plant feed, environmental factors influence the availability of crucial nutrients or micronutrients, a lack or excess of which can cause a great many ailments. In Australia, where the soil contains limited phosphate, cattle are fed additional phosphate to increase the efficiency of beef production. Also in Australia, cattle and sheep in certain areas were often found losing their appetite and dying in the midst of rich pasture; this was found to be a result of cobalt deficiency in the soil. Plant toxins are a risk to grazing animals; for instance, sodium fluoroacetate, found in some African and Australian plants, kills by disrupting the cellular metabolism. Some man-made pollutants such as methylmercury and some pesticide residues present a particular hazard as they bioaccumulate in meat, potentially poisoning consumers.[13]

Animal welfare

See also: Animal welfare labelling
The welfare of farm animals such as hens in battery cages and other systems is debated.[14][15][16]

Practices such as confinement in factory farming have generated concerns for animal welfare. Animals have abnormal behaviors such as tail-biting, cannibalism, and feather pecking. Invasive procedures such as beak trimming, castration, and ear notching have similarly been questioned.[17] Breeding for high productivity may affect welfare, as when broiler chickens are bred to be very large and to grow rapidly. Broilers often have leg deformities and become lame, and many die from the stress of handling and transport.[18]

Human intervention

Meat producers may seek to improve the fertility of female animals through the administration of gonadotrophic or ovulation-inducing hormones. In pig production, sow infertility is a common problem – possibly due to excessive fatness. No methods currently exist to augment the fertility of male animals. Artificial insemination is now routinely used to produce animals of the best possible genetic quality, and the efficiency of this method is improved through the administration of hormones that synchronize the ovulation cycles within groups of females.[19]

Growth hormones, particularly anabolic agents such as steroids, are used in some countries to accelerate muscle growth in animals.[19] This practice has given rise to the beef hormone controversy, an international trade dispute. It may decrease the tenderness of meat, although research on this is inconclusive, and have other effects on the composition of the muscle flesh.[20] Where castration is used to improve control over male animals, its side effects can be counteracted by the administration of hormones.[19] Myostatin has been used to produce muscle hypertrophy.[21]

Sedatives may be administered to animals to counteract stress factors and increase weight gain. The feeding of antibiotics to certain animals increases growth rates. This practice is particularly prevalent in the US, but has been banned in the EU, partly because it causes antimicrobial resistance in pathogenic microorganisms.[20]

Composition

Biochemical

The biochemical composition of meat varies in complex ways depending on the species, breed, sex, age, plane of nutrition, training and exercise of the animal, as well as on the anatomical location of the musculature involved.[22] Even between animals of the same litter and sex there are considerable differences in such parameters as the percentage of intramuscular fat.[23]

Adult mammalian muscle consists of roughly 75 percent water, 19 percent protein, 2.5 percent intramuscular fat, 1.2 percent carbohydrates and 2.3 percent other soluble substances. These include organic compounds, especially amino acids, and inorganic substances such as minerals.[24] Muscle proteins are either soluble in water (sarcoplasmic proteins, about 11.5 percent of total muscle mass) or in concentrated salt solutions (myofibrillar proteins, about 5.5 percent of mass).[24] There are several hundred sarcoplasmic proteins.[24] Most of them – the glycolytic enzymes – are involved in glycolysis, the conversion of sugars into high-energy molecules, especially adenosine triphosphate (ATP).[24] The two most abundant myofibrillar proteins, myosin and actin,[24] form the muscle's overall structure and enable it to deliver power, consuming ATP in the process. The remaining protein mass includes connective tissue (collagen and elastin).[24] Fat in meat can be either adipose tissue, used by the animal to store energy and consisting of "true fats" (esters of glycerol with fatty acids),[25] or intramuscular fat, which contains phospholipids and cholesterol.[25]

Meat can be broadly classified as "red" or "white" depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fiber. When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen, reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal age, and fiber type: Red meat contains more narrow muscle fibers that tend to operate over long periods without rest,[26] while white meat contains more broad fibers that tend to work in short fast bursts, such as the brief flight of the chicken.[26] The meat of adult mammals such as cows, sheep, and horses is considered red, while chicken and turkey breast meat is considered white.[27]

  • "Red" meat: beef steak
    "Red" meat:
    beef steak
  • "White" meat: chicken breast (flight muscle)
    "White" meat:
    chicken breast (flight muscle)

Nutritional

Muscle tissue is high in protein, containing all of the essential amino acids, and in most cases is a good source of zinc, vitamin B12, selenium, phosphorus, niacin, vitamin B6, choline, riboflavin and iron.[28] Several forms of meat are high in vitamin K.[29] Muscle tissue is very low in carbohydrates and does not contain dietary fiber.[30]

The fat content of meat varies widely with the species and breed of animal, the way in which the animal was raised, what it was fed, the part of the body, and the methods of butchering and cooking. Wild animals such as deer are leaner than farm animals, leading those concerned about fat content to choose game such as venison. Decades of breeding meat animals for fatness is being reversed by consumer demand for leaner meat. The fatty deposits near the muscle fibers in meats soften meat when it is cooked, improve its flavor, and make the meat seem juicier. Fat around meat further contains cholesterol. The increase in meat consumption after 1960 is associated with significant imbalances of fat and cholesterol in the human diet.[31]

Nutritional content of 110 g (1⁄4 lb); data vary widely with selection (e.g. skinless, boneless) and preparation
Source Energy: kJ (kcal) Protein Carbs Fat
Chicken breast[32] 490 (117) 25 g 0 g 2 g
Lamb mince[33] 1,330 (319) 19 g 0 g 26 g
Beef mince[34] 1,200 (287) 19 g 0 g 22 g
Dog[35] 1,100 (270) 20 g 0 g 22 g
Horse[36] 610 (146) 23 g 0 g 5 g
Pork loin[37] 1,010 (242) 14 g 0 g 30 g
Rabbit[38] 900 (215) 32 g 0 g 9 g

Production

Further information: Meat industry and Meat-packing industry
  • World production of meat, main items[39]
    World production of meat, main items[39]
  • World production of main meat items, main producers (2019)[39]
    World production of main meat items, main producers (2019)[39]
Land Animals Killed for Meat, 2013[40]
Animals Number Killed
Chickens
61,171,973,510
Ducks
2,887,594,480
Pigs
1,451,856,889
Rabbits
1,171,578,000
Geese
687,147,000
Turkeys
618,086,890
Sheep
536,742,256
Goats
438,320,370
Cattle
298,799,160
Rodents
70,371,000
Other birds
59,656,000
Buffalo
25,798,819
Horses
4,863,367
Donkeys, mules
3,478,300
Camelids
3,298,266

Biomass of mammals on Earth[41]

  Livestock, mostly cattle and pigs (60%)
  Humans (36%)
  Wild mammals (4%)

Transport

Upon reaching a predetermined age or weight, livestock are usually transported en masse to the slaughterhouse.[42] Depending on its length and circumstances, this may exert stress and injuries on the animals, and some may die en route.[42] Unnecessary stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat.[42] In particular, the muscles of stressed animals are low in water and glycogen, and their pH fails to attain acidic values, all of which results in poor meat quality.[42]

Slaughter

See also: Animal slaughter and Meat industry

Animals are usually slaughtered by being first stunned and then exsanguinated (bled out). Death results from the one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed.[43] Stunning can be effected through asphyxiating the animals with carbon dioxide, shooting them with a gun or a captive bolt pistol, or shocking them with electric current.[43] The exsanguination is accomplished by severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein in cattle and sheep, and the anterior vena cava in pigs.[43] Draining as much blood as possible from the carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms.[43]

Dressing and cutting

After exsanguination, the carcass is dressed; that is, the head, feet, hide (except hogs and some veal), excess fat, viscera and offal are removed, leaving only bones and edible muscle.[43] Cattle and pig carcases, but not those of sheep, are then split in half along the mid ventral axis, and the carcase is cut into wholesale pieces. The dressing and cutting sequence, long a province of manual labor, is being progressively automated.[43]

Conditioning

Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (−1.5 °C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor.[44] During the first day after death, glycolysis continues until the accumulation of lactic acid causes the pH to reach about 5.5. The remaining glycogen, about 18 g per kg, increases the water-holding capacity and tenderness of cooked meat.[45]

Rigor mortis sets in a few hours after death as adenosine triphosphate is used up. This causes the muscle proteins actin and myosin to combine into rigid actomyosin. This in turn lowers the meat's water-holding capacity,[46] so the meat loses water or "weeps".[44] In muscles that enter rigor in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that becomes tough when cooked.[44] Over time, muscle proteins denature in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and elastin of connective tissue,[44] and rigor mortis resolves. These changes mean that meat is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of rigor, but tough when cooked during rigor.[44]

As the muscle pigment myoglobin denatures, its iron oxidizes, which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat.[44] Ongoing proteolysis contributes to conditioning: hypoxanthine, a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to meat's flavor and odor, as do other products of the decomposition of muscle fat and protein.[47]

Additives

Further information: Meat spoilage and Meat preservation

When meat is industrially processed, additives are used to protect or modify its flavor or color, to improve its tenderness, juiciness or cohesiveness, or to aid with its preservation.[49]

Additives used in industrial meat processing[49]
Additive Examples Function Notes
Salt n/a Imparts flavor, inhibits microbial growth, extends the product's shelf life and helps emulsifying finely processed products, such as sausages. The most common additive. Ready-to-eat meat products often contain 1.5 to 2.5 percent salt.
Nitrite n/a Curing meat, to stabilize color and flavor, and inhibit growth of spore-forming microorganisms such as Clostridium botulinum. The use of nitrite's precursor nitrate is now limited to a few products such as dry sausage, prosciutto or parma ham.
Alkaline polyphosphates Sodium tripolyphosphate Increase the water-binding and emulsifying ability of meat proteins, limit lipid oxidation and flavor loss, and reduce microbial growth.
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) n/a Stabilize the color of cured meat.
Sweeteners Sugar, corn syrup Impart a sweet flavor, bind water and assist surface browning during cooking in the Maillard reaction.
Seasonings Spices, herbs, essential oils Impart or modify flavor.
Flavorings Monosodium glutamate Strengthen existing flavors.
Tenderizers Proteolytic enzymes, acids Break down collagen to make the meat more palatable for consumption.
Antimicrobials lactic, citric and acetic acid, calcium sulfate, cetylpyridinium chloride, lactoferrin, bacteriocins such as nisin. Limit growth of meat spoilage bacteria
Antioxidants Limit lipid oxidation, which would create an undesirable "off flavor". Used in precooked meat products.
Acidifiers Lactic acid, citric acid Impart a tangy or tart flavor note, extend shelf-life, tenderize fresh meat or help with protein denaturation and moisture release in dried meat. They substitute for the process of natural fermentation that acidifies some meat products such as hard salami or prosciutto.

Consumption

Historical

A bioarchaeological (specifically, isotopic analysis) study of early medieval England found, based on the funerary record, that high-meat protein diets were extremely rare, and that (contrary to previously held assumptions) elites did not consume more meat than non-elites, and men did not consume more meat than women.[50]

In the nineteenth century, meat consumption in Britain was the highest in Europe, exceeded only by that in British colonies. In the 1830s consumption per head in Britain was about 34 kilograms (75 lb) a year, rising to 59 kilograms (130 lb) in 1912. In 1904, laborers consumed 39 kilograms (87 lb) a year while aristocrats ate 140 kilograms (300 lb). There were some 43,000 butcher's shops in Britain in 1910, with "possibly more money invested in the meat industry than in any other British business" except finance.[51] The US was a meat importing country by 1926.[51]

Truncated lifespan as a result of intensive breeding allows more meat to be produced from fewer animals. The world cattle population was about 600 million in 1929, with 700 million sheep and goats and 300 million pigs.[51]

Further information: List of countries by meat consumption and List of countries by meat production
While meat consumption in most industrialized countries is at high, stable levels...[52]
... it is rising in emerging economies.[52]
Per capita annual meat consumption by region[53]
Total annual meat consumption by region
Total annual meat consumption by type of meat

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, the overall consumption for white meat has increased from the 20th to the 21st centuries. Poultry meat has increased by 76.6% per kilo per capita and pig meat by 19.7%. Bovine meat has decreased from 10.4 kg (22 lb 15 oz) per capita in 1990 to 9.6 kg (21 lb 3 oz) per capita in 2009.[54] FAO analysis found that 357 million tonnes of meat were produced in 2021, 53% more than in 2000, with chicken meat representing more than half the increase.[55]

Overall, diets that include meat are the most common worldwide according to the results of a 2018 Ipsos MORI study of 16–64 years olds in 28 countries. Ipsos states "An omnivorous diet is the most common diet globally, with non-meat diets (which can include fish) followed by over a tenth of the global population." Approximately 87% of people include meat in their diet in some frequency. 73% of meat eaters included it in their diet regularly and 14% consumed meat only occasionally or infrequently. Estimates of the non-meat diets were analysed. About 3% of people followed vegan diets, where consumption of meat, eggs, and dairy are abstained from. About 5% of people followed vegetarian diets, where consumption of meat is abstained from, but egg and/or dairy consumption is not strictly restricted. About 3% of people followed pescetarian diets, where consumption of the meat of land animals is abstained from, fish meat and other seafood is consumed, and egg and/or dairy consumption may or may not be strictly restricted.[56]

The type of meat consumed varies between different cultures. The amount and kind of meat consumed varies by income, both between countries and within a given country.[57] Horses are commonly eaten in countries such as France,[58] Italy, Germany and Japan.[59] Horses and other large mammals such as reindeer were hunted during the late Paleolithic in western Europe.[60] Dogs are consumed in China,[61] South Korea[62] and Vietnam.[63] Dogs are occasionally eaten in the Arctic regions.[64] Historically, dog meat has been consumed in various parts of the world, such as Hawaii,[65] Japan,[66] Switzerland[65] and Mexico.[67] Cats are sometimes eaten, such as in Peru.[68] Guinea pigs are raised for their flesh in the Andes.[69] Whales and dolphins are hunted, partly for their flesh, in several countries.[70] Misidentification is a risk; in 2013, products in Europe labelled as beef actually contained horse meat.[71]

Methods of preparation

Meat can be cooked in many ways, including braising, broiling, frying, grilling, and roasting.[72] Meat can be cured by smoking, which preserves and flavors food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering wood.[73] Other methods of curing include pickling, salting, and air-drying.[74] Some recipes call for raw meat; steak tartare is made from minced raw beef.[75] Pâtés are made with ground meat and fat, often including liver.[76]

Health effects

Further information: Red meat § Health effects

Meat, in particular red and processed meat, is linked to a variety of health risks.[77][78] The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of vegetables or other underconsumed foods (fruits, whole grains, and dairy) while reducing intake of protein foods (meats, poultry, and eggs) that they currently overconsume.[79]

Contamination

Toxic compounds including heavy metals, mycotoxins, pesticide residues, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyl can contaminate meat. Processed, smoked and cooked meat may contain carcinogens such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.[80] Toxins may be introduced to meat as part of animal feed, as veterinary drug residues, or during processing and cooking. Such compounds are often metabolized in the body to form harmful by-products. Negative effects depend on the individual genome, diet, and history of the consumer.[81]

Cancer

Main article: Red meat § Cancer

The consumption of processed and red meat carries an increased risk of cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a specialized agency of the World Health Organization (WHO), classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, "carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer."[77][82] IARC classified red meat as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect."[83]

Cancer Research UK, National Health Service (NHS) and the National Cancer Institute have stated that red and processed meat intake increases risk of bowel cancer.[84][85][86] The American Cancer Society in their "Diet and Physical Activity Guideline", stated "evidence that red and processed meats increase cancer risk has existed for decades, and many health organizations recommend limiting or avoiding these foods."[87] The Canadian Cancer Society have stated that "eating red and processed meat increases cancer risk".[88]

A 2021 review found an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8–72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat.[89]

Cooking muscle meat creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute published results of a study which found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done.[90] While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below 100 °C (212 °F) creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%.[91] Nitrosamines, present in processed and cooked foods, are carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, present in processed, smoked and cooked foods, are similarly carcinogenic.[80]

Bacterial contamination

Bacterial contamination has been seen with meat products. A 2011 study by the Translational Genomics Research Institute showed that nearly half (47%) of the meat and poultry in U.S. grocery stores were contaminated with S. aureus, with more than half (52%) of those bacteria resistant to antibiotics.[78] A 2018 investigation by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism and The Guardian found that around 15 percent of the US population suffers from foodborne illnesses every year. The investigation highlighted unsanitary conditions in US-based meat plants, which included meat products covered in excrement and abscesses "filled with pus".[92]

Complete cooking and the careful avoidance of recontamination reduce the risk of bacterial infections from meat.[93]

Diabetes

Consumption of 100 g/day of red meat and 50 g/day of processed meat is associated with an increased risk of diabetes.[94]

Diabetes UK advises people to limit their intake of red and processed meat.[95][96]

Infectious diseases

Meat production and trade substantially increase risks for infectious diseases (zoonosis), including of pandemics, whether though contact with wild and farmed animals, or via husbandry's environmental impact.[97][98] For example, avian influenza from poultry meat production is a threat to human health.[99] Furthermore, the use of antibiotics in meat production contributes to antimicrobial resistance[100][101] – which contributes to millions of deaths[102] – and makes it harder to control infectious diseases.[103][104][105]

Changes in consumer behavior

In response to changing meat prices as well as health concerns about saturated fat and cholesterol, consumers have altered their consumption of various meats. Consumption of beef in the United States between 1970 and 1974 and 1990–1994 dropped by 21%, while consumption of chicken increased by 90%.[106]

Heart disease

Risk of ischemic heart disease for each 50 g per day increase in processed meat consumption[107]

Except for poultry, at 50 g/day unprocessed red and processed meat are risk factors for ischemic heart disease, increasing the risk by about 9 and 18% respectively.[107][108]

Environmental impact

Further information: Environmental impacts of animal agriculture

A multitude of serious negative environmental effects are associated with meat production. Among these are greenhouse gas emissions, fossil energy use, water use, water quality changes, and effects on grazed ecosystems. They are so significant that according to University of Oxford researchers, "a vegan diet is probably the single biggest way to reduce your impact on planet Earth... far bigger than cutting down on your flights or buying an electric car".[109] However, this is often ignored in the public consciousness and in plans to tackle serious environmental issues such as the climate crisis.[110]

The livestock sector may be the largest source of water pollution (due to animal wastes, fertilizers, pesticides), and it contributes to emergence of antibiotic resistance. It accounts for over 8% of global human water use. It is a significant driver of biodiversity loss and ecosystems, as it causes deforestation,[111] ocean dead zones,[112] species extinction,[113][114] land degradation, pollution, overfishing and global warming.[115][116][117] Cattle farming was estimated to be responsible for 80 per cent of Amazon deforestation in 2008 due to the clearing of forests to grow animal feed (especially soya) and cattle ranching.[118]

Environmental effects vary among livestock production systems.[119] Grazing of livestock can be beneficial for some wildlife species, but not for others.[120][121] Targeted grazing of livestock is used as a food-producing alternative to herbicide use in some vegetation management.[122]

Land use

Cereal-use statistic showing an estimated large fraction of crops used as animal feed (red)
Meat production is a main driver of tropical deforestation, in the Amazon largely due to beef production for export.[123][124][125][126]

Meat production is by far the biggest user of land, as it accounts for nearly 40% of the global land surface.[127] Just in the contiguous United States, 34% of its land area (265 million hectares or 654 million acres) are used as pasture and rangeland, mostly feeding livestock, not counting 158 million hectares (391 million acres) of cropland (20%), some of which is used for producing feed for livestock.[128] Roughly 75% of deforested land around the globe is used for livestock pasture.[129] Deforestation from practices like slash-and-burn releases CO2 and removes the carbon sink of grown tropical forest ecosystems which substantially mitigate climate change.[130] Land use is a major pressure on pressure on fertile soils which is important for global food security.[131]

Climate change

See also: Livestock's Long Shadow
Life-cycle assessment of GHG emissions for foods. Beef is the food with the largest carbon footprint, mainly due to methane production from cows.

The rising global consumption of carbon-intensive meat products has "exploded the global carbon footprint of agriculture," according to some top scientists.[132][133] Meat production is responsible for some 35% of global emissions of greenhouse gases, and 60% of the greenhouse gases attributable to food production.[134]

Some nations show very different impacts to counterparts within the same group, with Brazil and Australia having emissions over 200% higher than the average of their respective income groups, driven by meat consumption.[135]

According to the Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production report produced by United Nations Environment Programme's (UNEP) international panel for sustainable resource management, a worldwide transition in the direction of a meat and dairy free diet is indispensable if adverse global climate change were to be prevented.[136] A 2019 report in The Lancet recommended that global meat (and sugar) consumption be reduced by 50 percent to mitigate climate change.[137] Meat consumption in Western societies needs to be reduced by up to 90% according to a 2018 study published in Nature.[138] The 2019 special report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change called for significantly reducing meat consumption, particularly in wealthy countries, in order to mitigate and adapt to climate change.[139]

Biodiversity loss

Meat consumption is a primary contributor to the sixth mass extinction.[116][140] A 2017 study by the World Wildlife Fund found that 60% of global biodiversity loss is attributable to meat-based diets, in particular from the use of land for feed crops, resulting in large-scale loss of habitats and species.[141] Livestock make up 60% of the biomass of all mammals on earth, followed by humans (36%) and wild mammals (4%).[142][143] In November 2017, 15,364 world scientists signed a Warning to Humanity calling for a drastic reduction in per capita consumption of meat and "dietary shifts towards mostly plant-based foods".[144] The 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services recommended a reduction in meat consumption to mitigate biodiversity loss.[145] A 2021 Chatham House report asserted that a shift towards plant-based diets would free up land for the restoration of ecosystems and biodiversity.[146]

Meat consumption is predicted to rise as the human population increases and becomes more affluent; this in turn would increase greenhouse gas emissions and further reduce biodiversity.[147]

Reducing environmental impact

The environmental impact of meat production can be reduced on the farm by conversion of human-inedible residues of food crops.[148][149] Manure from meat-producing livestock is used as fertilizer; it may be composted before application to food crops. Substitution of animal manures for synthetic fertilizers in crop production can be environmentally significant, as between 43 and 88 MJ of fossil fuel energy are used per kg of nitrogen in manufacture of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers.[150]

Reducing meat consumption

Main article: Sustainable consumption § Sustainable food consumption

The IPCC and others have stated that meat production has to be reduced substantially for any sufficient mitigation of climate change and, at least initially, largely through shifts towards plant-based diets where meat consumption is high.[139][151][53] Personal carbon allowances that allow a certain amount of free meat consumption per person would be a form of restriction, meat taxes would be a type of fiscal mechanism. Meat can be replaced by, for example, high-protein iron-rich low-emission legumes and common fungi, dietary supplements (e.g. of vitamin B12 and zinc) and fortified foods,[152] cultured meat, microbial foods,[153] mycoprotein,[154] meat substitutes, and other alternatives,[155] such as those based on mushrooms,[156] legumes (pulses), and other food sources.[157] Land previously used for meat production can be rewilded.[151][117] The biologists Rodolfo Dirzo, Gerardo Ceballos, and Paul R. Ehrlich state that it is the "massive planetary monopoly of industrial meat production that needs to be curbed" while respecting the cultural traditions of indigenous peoples, for whom meat is an important source of protein.[158]

Cultural aspects

Meat is part of the human diet in most cultures, where it often has symbolic meaning and important social functions.[159]

Ethical issues

Main article: Ethics of eating meat

Ethical issues regarding the consumption of meat include objecting to the act of killing animals or to the agricultural practices used in meat production. Reasons for objecting to killing animals for consumption may include animal rights, environmental ethics, or an aversion to inflicting pain or harm on sentient animals. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals for cultural or religious reasons.[160]

The founders of Western philosophy disagreed about the ethics of eating meat. Plato's Republic has Socrates describe the ideal state as vegetarian.[161] Pythagoras believed that humans and animals were equal and therefore disapproved of meat consumption, as did Plutarch, whereas Zeno and Epicurus were vegetarian but allowed meat-eating in their philosophy.[161] Conversely, Aristotle's Politics assert that animals, as inferior beings,[162] exist to serve humans, including as food.[162][161] Augustine drew on Aristotle to argue that the universe's natural hierarchy allows humans to eat animals, and animals to eat plants.[161] Enlightenment philosophers were likewise divided. Descartes wrote that animals were merely animated machines, while Kant considered them inferior beings for lack of discernment: means rather than ends.[161] But Voltaire and Rousseau disagreed; Rousseau argued that meat-eating is a social rather than a natural act, because children are not interested in meat.[161]

Later philosophers examined the changing practices of eating meat in the modern age as part of a process of detachment from animals as living beings. Norbert Elias, for instance, noted that in medieval times cooked animals were brought to the table whole, but that since the Renaissance only the edible parts are served, which are no longer recognizably part of an animal.[161] Modern eaters, according to Noëlie Vialles, demand an "ellipsis" between meat and dead animals; for instance, calves' eyes are no longer considered a delicacy as in the Middle Ages, but provoke disgust.[161] Fernand Braudel wrote that since the European diet of the 15th and 16th century was particularly heavy in meat, European colonialism helped export meat-eating across the globe, as colonized peoples took up the culinary habits of their colonizers, which they associated with wealth and power.[161]

Religious traditions

Main article: Vegetarianism and religion
Catholic nuns buying meat in Italy

Among the Indian religions, Jainism opposes the eating of meat, while some schools of Buddhism and Hinduism advocate but do not mandate vegetarianism.[163][164] Jewish Kashrut dietary rules allow certain kosher meats and forbid others (treif). The rules prohibit the consumption of unclean animals such as pork, and mixtures of meat and milk.[165] Similar rules apply in Islamic dietary laws: The Quran explicitly forbids meat from animals that die naturally, blood, and the meat of pigs, which are haram, forbidden, as opposed to halal, allowed.[166] Some Sikh groups oppose eating any meat.[167]

Psychology

Main article: Psychology of eating meat

Research in applied psychology has investigated meat eating in relation to morality, emotions, cognition, and personality.[168] Psychological research suggests meat eating is correlated with masculinity,[169] and reduced openness to experience.[170] Research into the consumer psychology of meat is relevant both to meat industry marketing[171] and to those advocating eating less meat.[172][173]

Gender

Unlike most other foods, meat is not perceived as gender-neutral; it is associated with men and masculinity. Sociological research, ranging from African tribal societies to contemporary barbeque (cf. grilling), indicates that men are much more likely to participate in preparing meat than other food.[161] This has been attributed to the influence of traditional male gender roles, in view of what Jack Goody calls a "male familiarity with killing", or as Claude Lévi-Strauss suggests, that roasting (meat) is more violent than boiling (grains and vegetables).[161] By and large, at least in modern societies, men tend to consume more meat than women, and further, men often prefer red meat whereas women tend to prefer chicken and fish.[161]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Lawrie & Ledward 2006, pp. 1–2.
  2. ^ "Meat definition and meaning". Collins English Dictionary. Archived from the original on July 12, 2017. Retrieved June 16, 2017.
  3. ^ "Definition of MEAT". merriam-webster.com. Archived from the original on March 19, 2018. Retrieved June 16, 2017.
  4. ^ McHugo, Gillian P.; Dover, Michael J.; MacHugh, David E. (December 2, 2019). "Unlocking the origins and biology of domestic animals using ancient DNA and paleogenomics". BMC Biology. 17 (1): 98. doi:10.1186/s12915-019-0724-7. PMC 6889691. PMID 31791340.
  5. ^ Lawler, Andrew; Adler, Jerry (June 2012). "How the Chicken Conquered the World". Smithsonian (June 2012).
  6. ^ MacHugh, David E.; Larson, Greger; Orlando, Ludovic (2017). "Taming the Past: Ancient DNA and the Study of Animal Domestication". Annual Review of Animal Biosciences. 5: 329–351. doi:10.1146/annurev-animal-022516-022747. PMID 27813680. S2CID 21991146.
  7. ^ Zatta, Paolo. "The History of Factory Farming". United Nations. Archived from the original on November 16, 2013.
  8. ^ a b c Nierenburg, Danielle (2005). "Happier Meals: Rethinking the Global Meat Industry". Worldwatch Paper. 171: 5.
  9. ^ a b c d e f Lawrie & Ledward 2006, pp. 10–14.
  10. ^ "Demand for organic meat on the rise, says Soil Association". July 28, 2016. Archived from the original on October 12, 2016. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h Lawrie & Ledward 2006, pp. 17–22.
  12. ^ Lawrie & Ledward 2006, pp. 22–23.
  13. ^ a b c Lawrie & Ledward 2006, pp. 25–30.
  14. ^ "RSPCA says egg industry is 'misleading the public' on free range". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. September 24, 2014. Archived from the original on November 1, 2016. Retrieved May 26, 2015.
  15. ^ "What The Rise Of Cage-Free Eggs Means For Chickens". NPR. Archived from the original on February 11, 2021. Retrieved May 26, 2015.
  16. ^ Kelto, Anders (December 23, 2014). "Farm Fresh? Natural? Eggs Not Always What They're Cracked Up To Be". NPR. Archived from the original on November 3, 2020. Retrieved May 26, 2015.
  17. ^ Bartlett, Harriet; Holmes, Mark A.; Petrovan, Silviu O.; Williams, David R.; Wood, James L. N.; Balmford, Andrew (June 2022). "Understanding the relative risks of zoonosis emergence under contrasting approaches to meeting livestock product demand". Royal Society Open Science. 9 (6): 211573. Bibcode:2022RSOS....911573B. doi:10.1098/rsos.211573. PMC 9214290. PMID 35754996.
  18. ^ "Compassion in World Farming – Meat chickens – Welfare issues". Compassion In World Farming. Archived from the original on October 23, 2013. Retrieved October 22, 2013.
  19. ^ a b c Lawrie & Ledward 2006, pp. 31–33.
  20. ^ a b Lawrie & Ledward 2006, pp. 35–39.
  21. ^ Aiello, D.; Patel, K.; Lasagna, E. (December 2018). "The myostatin gene: an overview of mechanisms of action and its relevance to livestock animals" (PDF). Animal Genetics. 49 (6): 505–519. doi:10.1111/age.12696. PMID 30125951. S2CID 52051853.
  22. ^ Lawrie & Ledward 2006, p. 94–126.
  23. ^ Lawrie & Ledward 2006, p. 126.
  24. ^ a b c d e f Lawrie & Ledward 2006, pp. 76–80.
  25. ^ a b Lawrie & Ledward 2006, p. 82.
  26. ^ a b Lawrie & Ledward 2006, p. 93.
  27. ^ "White Meat vs. Red Meat / Nutrition / Healthy Eating". Archived from the original on May 5, 2017. Retrieved April 25, 2017.
  28. ^ "Don't Miss Out on the Benefits of Naturally Nutrient-Rich Lean Beef" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 27, 2008. Retrieved January 11, 2008.
  29. ^ Schurgers, L.J.; Vermeer, C. (2000). "Determination of phylloquinone and menaquinones in food. Effect of food matrix on circulating vitamin K concentrations". Haemostasis. 30 (6): 298–307. doi:10.1159/000054147 (inactive May 21, 2024). PMID 11356998. S2CID 84592720.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2024 (link)
  30. ^ "Dietary Fiber". Ext.colostate.edu. Archived from the original on June 28, 2013. Retrieved May 1, 2010.
  31. ^ Horowitz, Roger (2005). Putting Meat on the American Table: Taste, Technology, Transformation. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 4.
  32. ^ "Chicken, breast, boneless, skinless, raw". FoodData Central, USDA. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
  33. ^ "Lamb, New Zealand, imported, ground lamb, raw". FoodData Central, USDA. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
  34. ^ "Beef, ground, 80% lean meat / 20% fat, raw". FoodData Central, USDA. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
  35. ^ Ann Yong-Geun "Dog Meat Foods in Korea" Archived October 7, 2007, at Wikiwix, Table 4. Composition of dog meat and Bosintang (in 100g, raw meat), Korean Journal of Food and Nutrition 12(4) 397 – 408 (1999).
  36. ^ "Game meat, horse, raw". FoodData Central, USDA. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
  37. ^ "FoodData Central". fdc.nal.usda.gov. Archived from the original on December 3, 2019. Retrieved October 25, 2019.
  38. ^ "FoodData Central". fdc.nal.usda.gov. Archived from the original on October 25, 2019. Retrieved October 26, 2019.
  39. ^ a b World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2021. Rome: FAO. 2021. doi:10.4060/cb4477en. ISBN 978-92-5-134332-6. S2CID 240163091.
  40. ^ "FAOSTAT". Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original on May 11, 2017. Retrieved October 25, 2019.
  41. ^ "Humans just 0.01% of all life but have destroyed 83% of wild mammals – study". The Guardian. May 21, 2018. Retrieved December 30, 2022.
  42. ^ a b c d Lawrie & Ledward 2006, pp. 129–130.
  43. ^ a b c d e f Lawrie & Ledward 2006, pp. 134–138.
  44. ^ a b c d e f Lawrie & Ledward 2006, pp. 141–146.
  45. ^ Lawrie & Ledward 2006, p. 87.
  46. ^ Lawrie & Ledward 2006, p. 90.
  47. ^ Lawrie & Ledward 2006, p. 155.
  48. ^ "Sausage". Online Etymology Dictionary. October 16, 1920. Archived from the original on October 21, 2012. Retrieved January 31, 2012.
  49. ^ a b Mills, E. (2004). "Additives". Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (1st ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 1–6. ISBN 978-0-12-464970-5.
  50. ^ Leggett, Sam; Lambert, Tom (2022). "Food and Power in Early Medieval England: a Lack of (Isotopic) Enrichment". Anglo-Saxon England. 49: 155–196. doi:10.1017/S0263675122000072. hdl:20.500.11820/220ece77-d37d-4be5-be19-6edc333cb58e. S2CID 257354036.
  51. ^ a b c Otter, Chris (2020). Diet for a large planet. USA: University of Chicago Press. pp. 28, 35, 47. ISBN 978-0-226-69710-9.
  52. ^ a b Meat Atlas 2014 – Facts and figures about the animals we eat, pp. 46–48, download as pdf Archived July 8, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
  53. ^ a b Parlasca, Martin C.; Qaim, Matin (October 5, 2022). "Meat Consumption and Sustainability". Annual Review of Resource Economics. 14: 17–41. doi:10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340.
  54. ^ Henchion, Maeve; McCarthy, Mary; Resconi, Virginia C.; Troy, Declan (November 2014). "Meat consumption: Trends and quality matters" (PDF). Meat Science. 98 (3): 561–568. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.06.007. hdl:11019/767. PMID 25060586. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 2, 2017. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
  55. ^ World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023. Food and Agriculture Organization. 2023. doi:10.4060/cc8166en. ISBN 978-92-5-138262-2. Retrieved December 13, 2023.
  56. ^ "An exploration into diets around the world" (PDF). Ipsos. UK. August 2018. pp. 2, 10, 11. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 12, 2019.
  57. ^ Mark Gehlhar and William Coyle, "Global Food Consumption and Impacts on Trade Patterns" Archived September 5, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Chapter 1 in Changing Structure of Global Food Consumption and Trade Archived February 26, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, edited by Anita Regmi, May 2001. USDA Economic Research Service.
  58. ^ "France's horsemeat lovers fear US ban". The Guardian. June 14, 2007. Retrieved December 30, 2022.
  59. ^ Davidson, Alan (2006). Tom Jaine, Jane Davidson and Helen Saberi. eds. The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280681-5, pp. 387–388
  60. ^ Turner, E. 2005. "Results of a recent analysis of horse remains dating to the Magdalenian period at Solutre, France," pp. 70–89. In Mashkour, M (ed.). Equids in Time and Space. Oxford: Oxbow
  61. ^ "Programmes – From Our Own Correspondent – China's taste for the exotic". BBC. June 29, 2002. Archived from the original on February 1, 2011. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
  62. ^ Podberscek, A.L. (2009). "Good to Pet and Eat: The Keeping and Consuming of Dogs and Cats in South Korea" (PDF). Journal of Social Issues. 65 (3): 615–632. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.596.7570. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2009.01616.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 19, 2011.
  63. ^ "Asia-Pacific – Vietnam's dog meat tradition". BBC. December 31, 2001. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
  64. ^ Francis H. Fay (June 1960) "Carnivorous walrus and some arctic zoonoses". Arctic 13, no.2: 111–22 Archived July 6, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
  65. ^ a b Schwabe, Calvin W. (1979). Unmentionable Cuisine. University of Virginia Press. ISBN 978-0-8139-1162-5.
  66. ^ Hanley, Susan B. (1997). Everyday Things in Premodern Japan: The Hidden Legacy of Material Culture. University of California Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-520-92267-9.
  67. ^ Davidson, Alan (2006). Tom Jaine, Jane Davidson and Helen Saberi. eds. The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280681-5, p. 491
  68. ^ "Carapulcra de gato y gato a la parrilla sirven en fiesta patronal". Cronica Viva. Archived from the original on November 17, 2010. Retrieved December 1, 2011.
  69. ^ "A Guinea Pig for All Times and Seasons". The Economist. July 15, 2004. Archived from the original on February 22, 2012. Retrieved December 1, 2011.
  70. ^ "Whaling in Lamaera-Flores" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on June 20, 2013. Retrieved April 10, 2013.
  71. ^ Castle, Stephen (April 16, 2013). "Europe Says Tests Show Horse Meat Scandal Is 'Food Fraud'". The New York Times. Retrieved December 30, 2022.
  72. ^ "Meat Cooking Methods". University of Nebraska-Lincoln Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
  73. ^ Janes, Hilly (November 10, 2001). "Smoked food... on a plate". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on July 6, 2022. Retrieved August 28, 2023.
  74. ^ Nummer, Brian A. (May 2002). "Historical Origins of Food Preservation". National Center for Home Food Preservation. Archived from the original on October 15, 2011. Retrieved January 2, 2023.
  75. ^ "Steak tartare: Traditional Appetizer From France". TasteAtlas. Retrieved November 3, 2023.
  76. ^ "Demystifying French Soft Charcuterie". MICHELIN Guide. Archived from the original on March 6, 2022. Retrieved July 2, 2021.
  77. ^ a b "Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat". World Health Organization. October 1, 2015. Retrieved August 7, 2019.
  78. ^ a b "US Meat and Poultry Is Widely Contaminated With Drug-Resistant Staph Bacteria". sciencedaily.com. Archived from the original on July 7, 2017. Retrieved March 9, 2018.
  79. ^ "2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines". health.gov. Retrieved December 30, 2022.
  80. ^ a b "PAH-Occurrence in Foods, Dietary Exposure and Health Effects" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 19, 2011. Retrieved May 1, 2010.
  81. ^ Püssa, Tõnu (December 1, 2013). "Toxicological issues associated with production and processing of meat". Meat Science. 95 (4): 844–853. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.04.032. PMID 23660174.
  82. ^ "IARC evaluates consumption of red meat and processed meat". paho.org. Retrieved March 22, 2023.
  83. ^ Staff. "World Health Organization – IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat" (PDF). International Agency for Research on Cancer. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 26, 2015. Retrieved October 26, 2015.
  84. ^ "Red meat and the risk of bowel cancer". nhs.uk. Retrieved March 22, 2023.
  85. ^ "Does eating processed and red meat cause cancer?". cancerresearchuk.org. Retrieved March 22, 2023.
  86. ^ "Red Meat and Processed Meat Consumption". progressreport.cancer.gov. Retrieved March 22, 2023.
  87. ^ Rock, Cheryl L.; Thomson, Cynthia; Gansler, Ted; Gapstur, Susan M.; McCullough, Marjorie L.; Patel, Alpa V.; et al. (2020). "American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention". CA. 70 (4): 245–271. doi:10.3322/caac.21591. PMID 32515498. S2CID 219550658.
  88. ^ "Limit red and processed meat". cancer.ca. Retrieved April 10, 2023.
  89. ^ Huang Y, Cao D, Chen Z, Chen B, Li J, Guo J, Dong Q, Liu L, Wei Q (September 2021). "Red and processed meat consumption and cancer outcomes: Umbrella review". Food Chem (Review). 356: 129697. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129697. PMID 33838606.
  90. ^ "National Cancer Institute – Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats". Cancer.gov. September 15, 2004. Archived from the original on December 21, 2010. Retrieved May 1, 2010.
  91. ^ "Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats – National Cancer Institute". Cancer.gov. September 15, 2004. Archived from the original on December 21, 2010. Retrieved May 1, 2010.
  92. ^ Wasley, Andrew (February 21, 2018). "'Dirty meat': Shocking hygiene failings discovered in US pig and chicken plants". The Guardian. Archived from the original on February 23, 2018. Retrieved February 24, 2018.
  93. ^ Corpet, Denis; Yin, Y.; Zhang, X.; Rémésy, C.; Stamp, D.; Medline, A.; et al. (1995). "Colonic protein fermentation and promotion of colon carcinogenesis by thermolyzed casein". Nutr Cancer. 23 (3): 271–281. doi:10.1080/01635589509514381. PMC 2518970. PMID 7603887.
  94. ^ Giosuè, Annalisa; Calabrese, Ilaria; Riccardi, Gabriele; Vaccaro, Olga; Vitale, Marilena (2022). "Consumption of different animal-based foods and risk of type 2 diabetes: An umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective studies". Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice. 191: 110071. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2022.110071. PMID 36067917.
  95. ^ "Red alert: processed and red meat". diabetes.org.uk. Retrieved March 22, 2023.
  96. ^ "What is a Healthy, Balanced Diet for Diabetes?". diabetes.org.uk. Retrieved March 22, 2023.
  97. ^ González, Neus; Marquès, Montse; Nadal, Martí; Domingo, José L. (November 1, 2020). "Meat consumption: Which are the current global risks? A review of recent (2010–2020) evidences". Food Research International. 137: 109341. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109341. PMC 7256495. PMID 33233049.
  98. ^ Greger, Michael (September 2021). "Primary Pandemic Prevention". American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. 15 (5): 498–505. doi:10.1177/15598276211008134. PMC 8504329. PMID 34646097.
  99. ^ Sutton, Troy C. (September 2018). "The Pandemic Threat of Emerging H5 and H7 Avian Influenza Viruses". Viruses. 10 (9): 461. doi:10.3390/v10090461. PMC 6164301. PMID 30154345.
  100. ^ Monger, Xavier C.; Gilbert, Alex-An; Saucier, Linda; Vincent, Antony T. (October 2021). "Antibiotic Resistance: From Pig to Meat". Antibiotics. 10 (10): 1209. doi:10.3390/antibiotics10101209. PMC 8532907. PMID 34680790.
  101. ^ Clifford, Katie; Desai, Darash; Prazeres da Costa, Clarissa; Meyer, Hannelore; Klohe, Katharina; Winkler, Andrea; Rahman, Tanvir; Islam, Taohidul; Zaman, Muhammad H (September 1, 2018). "Antimicrobial resistance in livestock and poor quality veterinary medicines". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 96 (9): 662–664. doi:10.2471/BLT.18.209585. PMC 6154060. PMID 30262949.
  102. ^ Murray, Christopher JL; Ikuta, Kevin Shunji; Sharara, Fablina; Swetschinski, Lucien; Aguilar, Gisela Robles; Gray, Authia; et al. (January 19, 2022). "Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: a systematic analysis". The Lancet. 399 (10325): 629–655 glish. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02724-0. PMC 8841637. PMID 35065702. S2CID 246077406.
  103. ^ Walker, Polly; Rhubart-Berg, Pamela; McKenzie, Shawn; Kelling, Kristin; Lawrence, Robert S. (June 2005). "Public health implications of meat production and consumption". Public Health Nutrition. 8 (4): 348–356. doi:10.1079/PHN2005727. PMID 15975179. S2CID 59196.
  104. ^ Hafez, Hafez M.; Attia, Youssef A. (2020). "Challenges to the Poultry Industry: Current Perspectives and Strategic Future After the COVID-19 Outbreak". Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 7: 516. doi:10.3389/fvets.2020.00516. PMC 7479178. PMID 33005639.
  105. ^ Mehdi, Youcef; Létourneau-Montminy, Marie-Pierre; Gaucher, Marie-Lou; Chorfi, Younes; Suresh, Gayatri; Rouissi, Tarek; et al. (June 1, 2018). "Use of antibiotics in broiler production: Global impacts and alternatives". Animal Nutrition. 4 (2): 170–178. doi:10.1016/j.aninu.2018.03.002. PMC 6103476. PMID 30140756.
  106. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2006. Retrieved August 17, 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  107. ^ a b Papier, Keren; Knuppel, Anika; Syam, Nandana; Jebb, Susan A.; Key, Tim J. (July 20, 2021). "Meat consumption and risk of ischemic heart disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 63 (3): 426–437. doi:10.1080/10408398.2021.1949575. PMID 34284672. S2CID 236158918.
  108. ^ Zhang, X.; et al. (2022). "Red/processed meat consumption and non-cancer-related outcomes in humans: umbrella review". British Journal of Nutrition. 22 (3): 484–494. doi:10.1017/S0007114522003415. PMID 36545687. S2CID 255021441.
  109. ^ Petter, Olivia (September 24, 2020). "Veganism is 'single biggest way' to reduce our environmental impact, study finds". The Independent. Retrieved November 23, 2023.
  110. ^ Dalton, Jane. "World leaders 'reckless for ignoring how meat and dairy accelerate climate crisis'". The Independent. Retrieved November 23, 2023.
  111. ^ Ritchie, Hannah (February 9, 2021). "Drivers of Deforestation". Our World in Data. Retrieved March 20, 2021.
  112. ^ Milman, Oliver (August 1, 2017). "Meat industry blamed for largest-ever 'dead zone' in Gulf of Mexico". The Guardian. Archived from the original on January 19, 2020. Retrieved August 2, 2017.
  113. ^ Morell, Virginia (August 11, 2015). "Meat-eaters may speed worldwide species extinction, study warns". Science. Archived from the original on December 20, 2016. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
  114. ^ Hance, Jeremy (October 20, 2015). "How humans are driving the sixth mass extinction". The Guardian. Archived from the original on December 4, 2016. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
  115. ^ Steinfeld, Henning; Gerber, Pierre; Wassenaar, Tom; Castel, Vincent; Rosales, Mauricio; de Haan, Cees (2006). Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization. p. xxiii. ISBN 978-92-5-105571-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 10, 2019. Retrieved May 14, 2017.
  116. ^ a b Machovina, B.; Feeley, K.J.; Ripple, W.J. (2015). "Biodiversity conservation: The key is reducing meat consumption". Science of the Total Environment. 536: 419–31. Bibcode:2015ScTEn.536..419M. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.022. PMID 26231772.
  117. ^ a b Xu, Xiaoming; Sharma, Prateek; Shu, Shijie; Lin, Tzu-Shun; Ciais, Philippe; Tubiello, Francesco N.; et al. (September 2021). "Global greenhouse gas emissions from animal-based foods are twice those of plant-based foods". Nature Food. 2 (9): 724–732. doi:10.1038/s43016-021-00358-x. hdl:2164/18207. PMID 37117472. S2CID 240562878.
  118. ^ "Unsustainable Cattle Ranching". wwf.org. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved November 23, 2023.
  119. ^ Steinfeld, H. et al. 2006, Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Livestock, Environment and Development, FAO.
  120. ^ Holechek, J. L.; et al. (1982). "Manipulation of grazing to improve or maintain wildlife habitat". Wildlife Society Bulletin. 10: 204–10.
  121. ^ Strassman, B.I. (1987). "Effects of cattle grazing and haying on wildlife conservation at National Wildlife Refuges in the United States" (PDF). Environmental Management. 11 (1): 35–44. Bibcode:1987EnMan..11...35S. doi:10.1007/bf01867177. hdl:2027.42/48162. S2CID 55282106.
  122. ^ Launchbaugh, K. (ed.) 2006. Targeted Grazing: a natural approach to vegetation management and landscape enhancement. American Sheep Industry. 199 pp.
  123. ^ Rajão, Raoni; Soares-Filho, Britaldo; Nunes, Felipe; Börner, Jan; Machado, Lilian; Assis, Débora; et al. (July 17, 2020). "The rotten apples of Brazil's agribusiness". Science. 369 (6501): 246–248. Bibcode:2020Sci...369..246R. doi:10.1126/science.aba6646. PMID 32675358. S2CID 220548355.
  124. ^ "Amazon soya and beef exports 'linked to deforestation'". BBC News. July 17, 2020.
  125. ^ zu Ermgassen, Erasmus K. H. J.; Godar, Javier; Lathuillière, Michael J.; Löfgren, Pernilla; Gardner, Toby; Vasconcelos, André; Meyfroidt, Patrick (December 15, 2020). "The origin, supply chain, and deforestation risk of Brazil's beef exports". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (50): 31770–31779. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11731770Z. doi:10.1073/pnas.2003270117. PMC 7749302. PMID 33262283.
  126. ^ McCoy, Terrence; Ledur, Júlia. "How Americans' love of beef is helping destroy the Amazon rainforest". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 27, 2022.
  127. ^ Sutter, John D. (December 12, 2016). "How to stop the sixth mass extinction". CNN. Archived from the original on January 12, 2017. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
  128. ^ Dave Merrill and Lauren Leatherby. "Here's How America Uses Its Land". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on February 25, 2020.
  129. ^ Nibert, David (2011). "Origins and Consequences of the Animal Industrial Complex". In Steven Best; Richard Kahn; Anthony J. Nocella II; Peter McLaren (eds.). The Global Industrial Complex: Systems of Domination. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 206. ISBN 978-0739136980.
  130. ^ Lawrence, Deborah; Coe, Michael; Walker, Wayne; Verchot, Louis; Vandecar, Karen (2022). "The Unseen Effects of Deforestation: Biophysical Effects on Climate". Frontiers in Forests and Global Change. 5. Bibcode:2022FrFGC...5.6115L. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2022.756115.
  131. ^ Borrelli, Pasquale; Robinson, David A.; Panagos, Panos; Lugato, Emanuele; Yang, Jae E.; Alewell, Christine; et al. (August 20, 2020). "Land use and climate change impacts on global soil erosion by water (2015–2070)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (36): 21994–22001. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11721994B. doi:10.1073/pnas.2001403117. PMC 7486701. PMID 32839306. S2CID 221305830.
  132. ^ Weston, Phoebe (January 13, 2021). "Top scientists warn of 'ghastly future of mass extinction' and climate disruption". The Guardian. Retrieved January 14, 2021.
  133. ^ Bradshaw, Corey J. A.; Ehrlich, Paul R.; Beattie, Andrew; Ceballos, Gerardo; Crist, Eileen; Diamond, Joan; et al. (2021). "Underestimating the Challenges of Avoiding a Ghastly Future". Frontiers in Conservation Science. 1. doi:10.3389/fcosc.2020.615419.
  134. ^ Milman, Oliver (September 13, 2021). "Meat accounts for nearly 60% of all greenhouse gases from food production, study finds". The Guardian. Source: Xu, et al., 2021, 'Global greenhouse gas emissions from animal-based foods are twice those of plant-based foods'
  135. ^ Behrens, Paul; Jong, Jessica C. Kiefte-de; Bosker, Thijs; Rodrigues, João F.D.; Koning, Arjan de; Tukker, Arnold (December 19, 2017). "Evaluating the environmental impacts of dietary recommendations". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (51): 13412–17. Bibcode:2017PNAS..11413412B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1711889114. PMC 5754780. PMID 29203655.
  136. ^ Carus, Felicity (June 2, 2010). "UN urges global move to meat and dairy-free diet". The Guardian. Archived from the original on March 3, 2018. Retrieved June 11, 2015.
  137. ^ Gibbens, Sarah (January 16, 2019). "Eating meat has 'dire' consequences for the planet, says report". National Geographic. Archived from the original on February 3, 2019. Retrieved February 14, 2019.
  138. ^ Willett, Walter; Rockström, Johan; Tilman, David; Godfray, H. Charles J.; Fanzo, Jess; Loken, Brent; Rayner, Mike; Scarborough, Peter; Zurayk, Rami (October 2018). "Options for keeping the food system within environmental limits". Nature. 562 (7728): 519–525. Bibcode:2018Natur.562..519S. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0594-0. PMID 30305731. S2CID 52954514.
  139. ^ a b Schiermeier, Quirin (August 8, 2019). "Eat less meat: UN climate change report calls for change to human diet". Nature. 572 (7769): 291–292. Bibcode:2019Natur.572..291S. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-02409-7. PMID 31409926. S2CID 199543066. Archived from the original on August 9, 2019. Retrieved August 10, 2019.
  140. ^ Morell, Virginia (August 11, 2015). "Meat-eaters may speed worldwide species extinction, study warns". Science. Archived from the original on December 20, 2016. Retrieved December 14, 2016.
  141. ^ Smithers, Rebecca (October 5, 2017). "Vast animal-feed crops to satisfy our meat needs are destroying planet". The Guardian. Archived from the original on March 3, 2018. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
  142. ^ Carrington, Damian (May 21, 2018). "Humans just 0.01% of all life but have destroyed 83% of wild mammals – study". The Guardian. Archived from the original on September 11, 2018. Retrieved June 29, 2018.
  143. ^ Bar-On, Yinon M.; Phillips, Rob; Milo, Ron (2018). "The biomass distribution on Earth". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (25): 6506–11. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.6506B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1711842115. PMC 6016768. PMID 29784790.
  144. ^ Ripple, W.J.; et al. (November 13, 2017). "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice". BioScience. 67 (12): 1026–1028. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix125. hdl:11336/71342.
  145. ^ Watts, Jonathan (May 6, 2019). "Human society under urgent threat from loss of Earth's natural life". The Guardian. Archived from the original on May 18, 2019. Retrieved May 18, 2019. Over the past week, representatives from the world's governments have fine-tuned the summary for policymakers, which includes remedial scenarios, such as "transformative change" across all areas of government, revised trade rules, massive investments in forests and other green infrastructure, and changes in individual behaviour such as lower consumption of meat and material goods.
  146. ^ Carrington, Damian (February 3, 2021). "Plant-based diets crucial to saving global wildlife, says report". The Guardian. Retrieved February 5, 2021.
  147. ^ Godfray, H. Charles J.; Aveyard, Paul; et al. (2018). "Meat consumption, health, and the environment". Science. 361 (6399). Bibcode:2018Sci...361M5324G. doi:10.1126/science.aam5324. PMID 30026199. S2CID 49895246.
  148. ^ Anderson, D.C. (1978). "Use of cereal residues in beef cattle production systems". J. Anim. Sci. 46 (3): 849–61. doi:10.2527/jas1978.463849x.
  149. ^ Elferink, E.V.; Nonhebel, S.; Moll, H.C. (2008). "Feeding livestock food residue and the consequences for the environmental impact of meat". J. Clean. Prod. 16 (12): 1227–33. Bibcode:2008JCPro..16.1227E. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2007.06.008.
  150. ^ Shapouri, H. et al. 2002. The energy balance of corn ethanol: an update. USDA Agricultural Economic Report 814.
  151. ^ a b Sun, Zhongxiao; Scherer, Laura; Tukker, Arnold; Spawn-Lee, Seth A.; Bruckner, Martin; Gibbs, Holly K.; Behrens, Paul (January 2022). "Dietary change in high-income nations alone can lead to substantial double climate dividend". Nature Food. 3 (1): 29–37. doi:10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5. PMID 37118487. S2CID 245867412.
  152. ^ Craig, Winston J.; Mangels, Ann Reed; Fresán, Ujué; Marsh, Kate; Miles, Fayth L.; Saunders, Angela V.; et al. (November 19, 2021). "The Safe and Effective Use of Plant-Based Diets with Guidelines for Health Professionals". Nutrients. 13 (11): 4144. doi:10.3390/nu13114144. PMC 8623061. PMID 34836399.
  153. ^ Humpenöder, Florian; Bodirsky, Benjamin Leon; Weindl, Isabelle; Lotze-Campen, Hermann; Linder, Tomas; Popp, Alexander (May 2022). "Projected environmental benefits of replacing beef with microbial protein" (PDF). Nature. 605 (7908): 90–96. Bibcode:2022Natur.605...90H. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04629-w. PMID 35508780. S2CID 248526001.
    News article: "Replacing some meat with microbial protein could help fight climate change". Science News. May 5, 2022. Retrieved May 27, 2022.
  154. ^ Bhuvaneswari, Meganathan; Sivakumar, Nallusamy (2021). "Fungi: A Potential Future Meat Substitute". Fungi in Sustainable Food Production. Fungal Biology. Springer International Publishing. pp. 181–195. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-64406-2_11. ISBN 978-3-030-64405-5. S2CID 234315964.
  155. ^ Lee, Hyun Jung; Yong, Hae In; Kim, Minsu; Choi, Yun-Sang; Jo, Cheorun (October 1, 2020). "Status of meat alternatives and their potential role in the future meat market – A review". Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences. 33 (10): 1533–1543. doi:10.5713/ajas.20.0419. PMC 7463075. PMID 32819080.
  156. ^ Sirimuangmoon, Chirat; Lee, Soh-Min; Guinard, Jean-Xavier; Myrdal Miller, Amy (2016). "A Study of Using Mushrooms as a Plant-based Alternative for a Popular Meat-based Dish". Asia-Pacific Journal of Science and Technology. 21 (16). Khon Kaen University: 156–167. doi:10.14456/KKURJ.2016.15. S2CID 113606865.
  157. ^ Onwezen, M. C.; Bouwman, E. P.; Reinders, M. J.; Dagevos, H. (April 1, 2021). "A systematic review on consumer acceptance of alternative proteins: Pulses, algae, insects, plant-based meat alternatives, and cultured meat". Appetite. 159: 105058. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2020.105058. PMID 33276014. S2CID 227242500.
  158. ^ Dirzo, Rodolfo; Ceballos, Gerardo; Ehrlich, Paul R. (2022). "Circling the drain: the extinction crisis and the future of humanity". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 377 (1857). doi:10.1098/rstb.2021.0378. PMC 9237743. PMID 35757873. Although among many Indigenous populations, meat consumption represents a cultural tradition and a source of protein, it is the massive planetary monopoly of industrial meat production that needs to be curbed
  159. ^ Leroy, Frédéric; Praet, Istvan (July 2015). "Meat traditions. The co-evolution of humans and meat". Appetite. 90: 200–211. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.03.014. PMID 25794684. S2CID 23769488.
  160. ^ Sandler, Ronald L. (2014). "3. Should we eat animals?". Food Ethics: The Basics. London: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-135-04547-0. Retrieved February 11, 2018.
  161. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Buscemi, Francesco (2018). From Body Fuel to Universal Poison: Cultural History of Meat: 1900–The Present. Springer International Publishing AG. pp. 10–16. ISBN 978-3-319-72085-2.
  162. ^ a b Aristotle; Jowett, B. The Politics. Ancient Greece. p. I. 8. 1256b.
  163. ^ Tähtinen, Unto (1976). Ahimsa: Non-Violence in Indian Tradition. London: Rider. pp. 107–111.
  164. ^ Walters, Kerry S.; Portmess, Lisa (2001). Religious Vegetarianism From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 37–91.
  165. ^ Leviticus 11:3–8
  166. ^ Qur'an 2:173, 5:3, 6:145, and 16:115.
  167. ^ Takhar, Opinderjit Kaur (2005). "2 Guru Nanak Nishkam Sewak Jatha". Sikh identity: an exploration of groups among Sikhs. Ashgate Publishing. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-7546-5202-1. Retrieved November 26, 2010.
  168. ^ Loughnan, Steve; Bastian, Brock; Haslam, Nick (2014). "The Psychology of Eating Animals" (PDF). Current Directions in Psychological Science. 23 (2): 104–108. doi:10.1177/0963721414525781. S2CID 145339463. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 30, 2018. Retrieved August 6, 2015.
  169. ^ Rozin, Paul; Hormes, Julia M.; Faith, Myles S.; Wansink, Brian (October 2012). "Is Meat Male? A Quantitative Multimethod Framework to Establish Metaphoric Relationships". Journal of Consumer Research. 39 (3): 629–43. doi:10.1086/664970.
  170. ^ Keller, Carmen; Seigrist, Michael (January 2015). "Does personality influence eating styles and food choices? Direct and indirect effects". Appetite. 84: 128–138. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2014.10.003. PMID 25308432. S2CID 34628674.
  171. ^ Richardson, N.J.; et al. (1994). "Consumer Perceptions of Meat". Meat Science. 36 (1–2): 57–65. doi:10.1016/0309-1740(94)90033-7. PMID 22061452.
  172. ^ Zur, Ifat; Klöckner, Christian A. (2014). "Individual motivations for limiting meat consumption". British Food Journal. 116 (4): 629–42. doi:10.1108/bfj-08-2012-0193.
  173. ^ Schösler, Hanna; Boer, Joop de; Boersema, Jan J. (2012). "Can we cut out the meat of the dish? Constructing consumer-oriented pathways towards meat substitution". Appetite. 58 (1): 39–47. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.09.009. PMID 21983048. S2CID 10495322.

Sources

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.

  • Lawrie, R.A.; Ledward, D. A. (2006). Lawrie's meat science (7th ed.). Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84569-159-2.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Meats.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Meat.
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Meat.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meat&oldid=1253175549"